Effects of Cold-Water and Cold-Air Exercise on Appetite, Energy Intake, and Food Preference
Effects of Exercising in Cold-Water and Cold-Ambient Air Versus a Thermoneutral Equivalent on Appetite, Energy Intake, and Food Preference: A Crossover Study in Healthy Males
研究概览
地位
详细说明
Exercise performed in cold environments may influence thermoregulatory responses and subsequent eating behaviour differently compared with exercise performed under thermoneutral conditions. Previous research suggests that cold exposure may increase post-exercise energy intake; however, the influence of environmental temperature and exercise medium (water versus air) on appetite regulation and food-related behaviour remains unclear.
This study used a randomised repeated-measures crossover design to investigate the effects of cold and thermoneutral exercise conditions on appetite, energy intake, and food preference in healthy males.
Eleven healthy males completed five laboratory trials: a no-exercise control condition and four experimental exercise conditions consisting of 30 minutes of arm-leg rowing exercise performed in cold-water (16°C), thermoneutral water (35°C), cold-ambient air (6°C), and thermoneutral ambient air (26°C). Trials were separated by a minimum seven-day washout period.
Appetite responses were assessed using visual analogue scales throughout each trial. Following exercise, participants consumed an ad libitum meal to assess acute post-exercise energy intake. Food preference responses, including food appeal and preference measures, were assessed using the Leeds Food Preference Questionnaire.
The primary objective was to determine whether environmental temperature and exercise medium influence post-exercise energy intake. Secondary objectives were to examine effects on subjective appetite and food preference measures.
This study provides insight into how exercising in different thermal environments may influence immediate eating behaviour following exercise.
研究类型
注册 (实际的)
阶段
- 不适用
联系人和位置
学习地点
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Coventry、英国、CV1 5FB
- Centre for Physical Activity, Sport and Exercise Sciences, Research Laboratory, Coventry University
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参与标准
资格标准
适合学习的年龄
- 成人
- 年长者
接受健康志愿者
描述
Inclusion Criteria:
- Healthy males aged 18-65 years
- Living in the UK
- Recreationally active and meeting current physical activity guidelines
- Body mass stable (<2 kg change) during the 3 months prior to the study
- Able to complete moderate-intensity arm-leg rowing exercise
- Able to tolerate the cold-water familiarisation/tolerance test
- Low cognitive restraint score on the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire Revised
- 18-item (TFEQ-R18)
- Able to consume the standardised breakfast and ad libitum pasta meal provided during the study
- Able to provide written informed consent
- Willing to complete study questionnaires and experimental assessments
- Willing to undergo core temperature measurement via self-inserted rectal thermistor and body composition assessment
Exclusion Criteria:
- Diagnosed cardiovascular, pulmonary, metabolic, or renal disease, or symptoms suggestive of these conditions
- Any contraindication to moderate-intensity exercise
- Conditions increasing risk during cold exposure, including history of cold-induced asthma, Raynaud's phenomenon, cold urticaria, or other non-freezing cold injuries
- Cold-habituated individuals (e.g., regular cold-water swimmers)
- Current medication known to alter body weight or metabolism
- Smoking, drug misuse, or alcohol abuse
- Current musculoskeletal injury or condition that could be worsened by exercise
- History of eating disorders or restrained eating behaviour
- Shift work or sleep deprivation affecting study participation
- Unable to fast before experimental sessions
- Unable to tolerate the cold-water familiarisation/tolerance procedure
- Unable to consume the foods provided as part of the standardised breakfast or ad libitum meal due to dietary restrictions or allergies
- Unable to commit to study requirements
学习计划
研究是如何设计的？
设计细节
- 主要用途：基础科学
- 分配：随机化
- 介入模型：交叉作业
- 屏蔽：无（打开标签）
武器和干预
参与者组/臂 |
干预/治疗 |
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有源比较器：Control Condition
Resting control condition with no exercise performed.
Participants completed the same standardised laboratory procedures and outcome assessments under resting conditions.
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Resting control condition with no exercise exposure.
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实验性的：Cold-Water Exercise
Participants completed 30 minutes of arm-leg rowing exercise performed in cold water at 16°C.
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Arm-leg rowing exercise performed in 16°C water.
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实验性的：Thermoneutral Water Exercise
Participants completed 30 minutes of arm-leg rowing exercise performed in thermoneutral water at 35°C.
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Arm-leg rowing exercise performed in 35°C water.
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实验性的：Cold-Ambient Air Exercise
Participants completed 30 minutes of arm-leg rowing exercise performed in cold ambient air at 6°C.
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Arm-leg rowing exercise performed in 6°C ambient air.
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实验性的：Thermoneutral Ambient Air Exercise
Participants completed 30 minutes of arm-leg rowing exercise performed in thermoneutral ambient air at 26°C.
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Arm-leg rowing exercise performed in 26°C ambient air.
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研究衡量的是什么？
主要结果指标
结果测量 |
措施说明 |
大体时间 |
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Post-exercise ad libitum energy intake
大体时间：30 minutes after completion of the 30-minute experimental/control condition.
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Energy intake consumed during an ad libitum homogeneous pasta meal provided after each 30-minute experimental/control condition.
The mass of food consumed was determined by subtracting the mass of food remaining (including leftovers on the plate and cutlery).
Absolute energy intake was calculated using the nutritional information provided by the food manufacturer.
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30 minutes after completion of the 30-minute experimental/control condition.
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Subjective appetite responses
大体时间：Before and after breakfast, before the 30-minute experimental/control condition, during the 30-minute experimental/control condition, and before and after the ad libitum meal.
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Subjective appetite responses including hunger, fullness, satisfaction, and prospective food consumption assessed using a 100-mm Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) ranging from 0 mm (not at all) to 100 mm (extremely).
Higher scores indicate greater subjective appetite sensations.
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Before and after breakfast, before the 30-minute experimental/control condition, during the 30-minute experimental/control condition, and before and after the ad libitum meal.
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Food preference and food reward responses
大体时间：15 minutes after completion of each 30-minute experimental/control trial and 15-minutes before the ad libitum meal.
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Food preference and reward responses assessed using the Leeds Food Preference Questionnaire (LFPQ).
Outcomes include explicit liking, explicit wanting, implicit wanting, and fat and sweet appeal bias scores.
Higher scores indicate greater preference or reward response for the respective food category (fat or sweet).
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15 minutes after completion of each 30-minute experimental/control trial and 15-minutes before the ad libitum meal.
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次要结果测量
结果测量 |
措施说明 |
大体时间 |
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Energy expenditure
大体时间：During the 30-minute experimental/control condition.
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Energy expenditure during the exercise/control condition estimated from breath-by-breath oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production using indirect calorimetry.
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During the 30-minute experimental/control condition.
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Skin temperature and mean body temperature responses
大体时间：5-minutes before and 5-minutes after the 30-minute experimental/control condition.
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Skin temperature was measured at four sites (chest, bicep, thigh, and calf) using skin temperature probes.
Mean skin temperature and mean body temperature were calculated to assess changes in peripheral and overall thermal status.
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5-minutes before and 5-minutes after the 30-minute experimental/control condition.
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Core body temperature
大体时间：During the 30-minute experimental/control condition and during the 60-minute post-exposure recovery period.
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Changes in core body temperature measured continuously using a rectal thermistor during and after each experimental/control condition.
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During the 30-minute experimental/control condition and during the 60-minute post-exposure recovery period.
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Thermal sensation and shivering responses
大体时间：During the 30-minute experimental/control condition at 10-minute intervals.
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Thermal sensation was assessed using the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) 7-point Thermal Sensation Scale, ranging from -3 (cold) to +3 (hot), where 0 indicates thermal neutrality. Shivering responses were assessed using the Bedside Shivering Assessment Scale (BSAS) ranging from 0 (no shivering) to 3 (severe shivering), with higher scores indicating greater shivering severity. |
During the 30-minute experimental/control condition at 10-minute intervals.
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合作者和调查者
出版物和有用的链接
一般刊物
- Grigg MJ, Thake CD, Allgrove JE, King JA, Thackray AE, Stensel DJ, Owen A, Broom DR. Influence of water-based exercise on energy intake, appetite, and appetite-related hormones in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Appetite. 2023 Jan 1;180:106375. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2022.106375. Epub 2022 Nov 12.
- Grigg MJ, Thake CD, Allgrove JE, Broom DR. Effects of cold-water immersion on energy expenditure, ad-libitum energy intake and appetite in healthy adults. Physiol Behav. 2025 Jul 1;296:114914. doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2025.114914. Epub 2025 Apr 10.
研究记录日期
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学习开始 (实际的)
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研究完成 (实际的)
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首次发布 (实际的)
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最后更新发布 (实际的)
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与本研究相关的术语
其他研究编号
- P180097
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