Effects of Cold-Water and Cold-Air Exercise on Appetite, Energy Intake, and Food Preference

Effects of Exercising in Cold-Water and Cold-Ambient Air Versus a Thermoneutral Equivalent on Appetite, Energy Intake, and Food Preference: A Crossover Study in Healthy Males

This study investigated whether exercising in cold environments affects appetite, energy intake, and food preference compared with exercising in thermoneutral conditions. Eleven healthy males completed five laboratory trials as part of a crossover study: a control trial and four exercise trials performed in cold-water (16°C), thermoneutral water (35°C), cold-ambient air (6°C), and thermoneutral ambient air (26°C). Appetite responses were assessed throughout each trial, and participants were provided with an ad libitum meal after exercise to measure energy intake. Food preference was assessed using the Leeds Food Preference Questionnaire. The study aimed to determine whether environmental temperature and exercise medium influence acute post-exercise eating behaviour.

Study Overview

• Status: Completed
• Conditions: Energy Intake; Appetite; Healthy Adult Male
• Intervention / Treatment: Other: Control Condition; Other: Cold-Water Exercise; Other: Thermoneutral Water Exercise; Other: Cold-Ambient Air Exercise; Other: Thermoneutral Ambient Air Exercise

Detailed Description

Exercise performed in cold environments may influence thermoregulatory responses and subsequent eating behaviour differently compared with exercise performed under thermoneutral conditions. Previous research suggests that cold exposure may increase post-exercise energy intake; however, the influence of environmental temperature and exercise medium (water versus air) on appetite regulation and food-related behaviour remains unclear.

This study used a randomised repeated-measures crossover design to investigate the effects of cold and thermoneutral exercise conditions on appetite, energy intake, and food preference in healthy males.

Eleven healthy males completed five laboratory trials: a no-exercise control condition and four experimental exercise conditions consisting of 30 minutes of arm-leg rowing exercise performed in cold-water (16°C), thermoneutral water (35°C), cold-ambient air (6°C), and thermoneutral ambient air (26°C). Trials were separated by a minimum seven-day washout period.

Appetite responses were assessed using visual analogue scales throughout each trial. Following exercise, participants consumed an ad libitum meal to assess acute post-exercise energy intake. Food preference responses, including food appeal and preference measures, were assessed using the Leeds Food Preference Questionnaire.

The primary objective was to determine whether environmental temperature and exercise medium influence post-exercise energy intake. Secondary objectives were to examine effects on subjective appetite and food preference measures.

This study provides insight into how exercising in different thermal environments may influence immediate eating behaviour following exercise.

• Study Type: Interventional
• Enrollment (Actual): 11
• Phase: Not Applicable

Contacts and Locations

Study Locations

• United Kingdom
  • Coventry, United Kingdom, CV1 5FB
    • Centre for Physical Activity, Sport and Exercise Sciences, Research Laboratory, Coventry University

Participation Criteria

Eligibility Criteria

• Ages Eligible for Study: Adult; Older Adult
• Accepts Healthy Volunteers: Yes

Description

Inclusion Criteria:

• Healthy males aged 18-65 years
• Living in the UK
• Recreationally active and meeting current physical activity guidelines
• Body mass stable (<2 kg change) during the 3 months prior to the study
• Able to complete moderate-intensity arm-leg rowing exercise
• Able to tolerate the cold-water familiarisation/tolerance test
• Low cognitive restraint score on the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire Revised
• 18-item (TFEQ-R18)
• Able to consume the standardised breakfast and ad libitum pasta meal provided during the study
• Able to provide written informed consent
• Willing to complete study questionnaires and experimental assessments
• Willing to undergo core temperature measurement via self-inserted rectal thermistor and body composition assessment

Exclusion Criteria:

• Diagnosed cardiovascular, pulmonary, metabolic, or renal disease, or symptoms suggestive of these conditions
• Any contraindication to moderate-intensity exercise
• Conditions increasing risk during cold exposure, including history of cold-induced asthma, Raynaud's phenomenon, cold urticaria, or other non-freezing cold injuries
• Cold-habituated individuals (e.g., regular cold-water swimmers)
• Current medication known to alter body weight or metabolism
• Smoking, drug misuse, or alcohol abuse
• Current musculoskeletal injury or condition that could be worsened by exercise
• History of eating disorders or restrained eating behaviour
• Shift work or sleep deprivation affecting study participation
• Unable to fast before experimental sessions
• Unable to tolerate the cold-water familiarisation/tolerance procedure
• Unable to consume the foods provided as part of the standardised breakfast or ad libitum meal due to dietary restrictions or allergies
• Unable to commit to study requirements

Study Plan

How is the study designed?

Design Details

• Primary Purpose: Basic Science
• Allocation: Randomized
• Interventional Model: Crossover Assignment
• Masking: None (Open Label)

Number of Arms

5

Arms and Interventions

Participant Group / Arm	Intervention / Treatment
Active Comparator: Control Condition; Resting control condition with no exercise performed. Participants completed the same standardised laboratory procedures and outcome assessments under resting conditions.	Other: Control Condition; Resting control condition with no exercise exposure.
Experimental: Cold-Water Exercise; Participants completed 30 minutes of arm-leg rowing exercise performed in cold water at 16°C.	Other: Cold-Water Exercise; Arm-leg rowing exercise performed in 16°C water.
Experimental: Thermoneutral Water Exercise; Participants completed 30 minutes of arm-leg rowing exercise performed in thermoneutral water at 35°C.	Other: Thermoneutral Water Exercise; Arm-leg rowing exercise performed in 35°C water.
Experimental: Cold-Ambient Air Exercise; Participants completed 30 minutes of arm-leg rowing exercise performed in cold ambient air at 6°C.	Other: Cold-Ambient Air Exercise; Arm-leg rowing exercise performed in 6°C ambient air.
Experimental: Thermoneutral Ambient Air Exercise; Participants completed 30 minutes of arm-leg rowing exercise performed in thermoneutral ambient air at 26°C.	Other: Thermoneutral Ambient Air Exercise; Arm-leg rowing exercise performed in 26°C ambient air.

What is the study measuring?

Primary Outcome Measures

Outcome Measure	Measure Description	Time Frame
Post-exercise ad libitum energy intake	Energy intake consumed during an ad libitum homogeneous pasta meal provided after each 30-minute experimental/control condition. The mass of food consumed was determined by subtracting the mass of food remaining (including leftovers on the plate and cutlery). Absolute energy intake was calculated using the nutritional information provided by the food manufacturer.	30 minutes after completion of the 30-minute experimental/control condition.
Subjective appetite responses	Subjective appetite responses including hunger, fullness, satisfaction, and prospective food consumption assessed using a 100-mm Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) ranging from 0 mm (not at all) to 100 mm (extremely). Higher scores indicate greater subjective appetite sensations.	Before and after breakfast, before the 30-minute experimental/control condition, during the 30-minute experimental/control condition, and before and after the ad libitum meal.
Food preference and food reward responses	Food preference and reward responses assessed using the Leeds Food Preference Questionnaire (LFPQ). Outcomes include explicit liking, explicit wanting, implicit wanting, and fat and sweet appeal bias scores. Higher scores indicate greater preference or reward response for the respective food category (fat or sweet).	15 minutes after completion of each 30-minute experimental/control trial and 15-minutes before the ad libitum meal.

Secondary Outcome Measures

Outcome Measure	Measure Description	Time Frame
Energy expenditure	Energy expenditure during the exercise/control condition estimated from breath-by-breath oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production using indirect calorimetry.	During the 30-minute experimental/control condition.
Skin temperature and mean body temperature responses	Skin temperature was measured at four sites (chest, bicep, thigh, and calf) using skin temperature probes. Mean skin temperature and mean body temperature were calculated to assess changes in peripheral and overall thermal status.	5-minutes before and 5-minutes after the 30-minute experimental/control condition.
Core body temperature	Changes in core body temperature measured continuously using a rectal thermistor during and after each experimental/control condition.	During the 30-minute experimental/control condition and during the 60-minute post-exposure recovery period.
Thermal sensation and shivering responses	Thermal sensation was assessed using the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) 7-point Thermal Sensation Scale, ranging from -3 (cold) to +3 (hot), where 0 indicates thermal neutrality. Shivering responses were assessed using the Bedside Shivering Assessment Scale (BSAS) ranging from 0 (no shivering) to 3 (severe shivering), with higher scores indicating greater shivering severity.	During the 30-minute experimental/control condition at 10-minute intervals.

Collaborators and Investigators

• Sponsor: Coventry University

Publications and helpful links

General Publications

• Grigg MJ, Thake CD, Allgrove JE, King JA, Thackray AE, Stensel DJ, Owen A, Broom DR. Influence of water-based exercise on energy intake, appetite, and appetite-related hormones in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Appetite. 2023 Jan 1;180:106375. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2022.106375. Epub 2022 Nov 12.
• Grigg MJ, Thake CD, Allgrove JE, Broom DR. Effects of cold-water immersion on energy expenditure, ad-libitum energy intake and appetite in healthy adults. Physiol Behav. 2025 Jul 1;296:114914. doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2025.114914. Epub 2025 Apr 10.

Study record dates

Study Major Dates

• Study Start (Actual): January 7, 2025
• Primary Completion (Actual): July 2, 2025
• Study Completion (Actual): July 2, 2025

Study Registration Dates

• First Submitted: June 26, 2026
• First Submitted That Met QC Criteria: June 26, 2026
• First Posted (Actual): July 2, 2026

Study Record Updates

• Last Update Posted (Actual): July 6, 2026
• Last Update Submitted That Met QC Criteria: July 2, 2026
• Last Verified: July 1, 2026

More Information

Terms related to this study

• Keywords: Thermoregulation; Cold exposure; Appetite; Energy Intake; Crossover study; Food preference; Healthy Adult Male; Cold-ambient air exercise; Cold-Water Exercise
• Additional Relevant MeSH Terms: Behavior; Feeding Behavior; Food Preferences
• Other Study ID Numbers: P180097

Plan for Individual participant data (IPD)

• Plan to Share Individual Participant Data (IPD)?: NO
• IPD Plan Description: Individual participant data will not be shared. Study results will be reported in aggregate form through publications and presentations. Data will be retained securely in accordance with Coventry University research governance and data protection requirements.

Drug and device information, study documents

• Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated drug product: No
• Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated device product: No