Correlates of Impostor Phenomenon Among Indonesian Sports Science Students (IMPOSTOR-2025)

Psychological, Behavioural, And Structural Correlates Of Impostor Phenomenon Among Sports Science Undergraduates In Indonesia: A Cross-Sectional Study

This cross-sectional study examined the associations between self-esteem, anxiety, and impostor phenomenon among sports science undergraduates in Indonesia, evaluating the independent contributions of psychological, behavioural, and structural correlates. A total of 438 junior-year undergraduates at a public university in Makassar, Indonesia, completed a cross-sectional survey. Self-esteem was measured using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES), anxiety symptoms were assessed using the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7), and impostor phenomenon severity was evaluated using the Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale (CIPS). Behavioural factors (nightly sleep duration and daily social media use) and structural factors (sex, grade point average [GPA], scholarship status, residential arrangement, and organizational participation) were also captured and analyzed using Spearman correlations, group comparisons, and simultaneous as well as hierarchical multiple linear regressions. Lower self-esteem (ρ = -0.512) and higher anxiety (ρ = 0.487) were the strongest correlates of impostor phenomenon, with the psychological domain explaining 38.0% of the total variance. Female sex, shorter sleep duration, heavier social media use, and lower GPA remained significant independent predictors in the adjusted regression model (overall R² = 48.1%), whereas institutional/structural factors such as scholarship and residential status showed no independent association.

NOTE: This study was retrospectively registered. The study was conducted from June 2025 to August 2025 following the STROBE guidelines and received ethical clearance (PROTOKOL-UH25010017) from the Institutional Biomedical Research Ethics Committee of Hasanuddin University prior to study initiation. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants. No outcome measures, study design, or statistical analysis plan were modified following data collection.

Study Overview

• Status: Completed
• Conditions: Anxiety; Self Esteem; Impostor Phenomenon
• Intervention / Treatment: Other: Self-Report Questionnaire Assessment

Detailed Description

This single-center, cross-sectional observational study was conducted among sports science undergraduates at a public university in Makassar, South Sulawesi, Indonesia, from June 2025 to August 2025.

BACKGROUND:

Impostor phenomenon, characterized by a persistent sense of intellectual phoniness despite objective competence, is an established psychological construct linked to elevated emotional distress and impaired functioning across academic and professional populations. While historically studied in high-achieving women, recent evidence shows it spans disciplines and cultures, raising interest in its underlying correlates. Low self-esteem serves as a primary self-evaluative substrate that heightens threat appraisal, while anxiety acts as a state-dependent amplifier. Modifiable behavioral factors, such as shorter sleep duration and heavy, comparison-oriented social media use, alongside demographic and structural indicators, further contribute to this self-perpetuating cycle. Despite growing global attention, three critical gaps remain: (1) prior literature is heavily concentrated on medical, nursing, and doctoral cohorts in high-income Western or Middle Eastern settings, leaving general undergraduate populations in Southeast Asia (including Indonesia) markedly underrepresented; (2) most existing studies rely on bivariate designs examining correlates in isolation, leaving it unclear which factors retain independent predictive value when evaluated jointly; and (3) structural and institutional proxies (e.g., scholarship status, residential arrangements) are frequently assumed to index socioeconomic vulnerability without formal multivariate testing net of psychological and behavioral domains. This cross-sectional study was designed to address these gaps by simultaneously modeling psychological, behavioral, and structural domains within a unified framework among Indonesian sports science undergraduates.

STUDY DESIGN AND PARTICIPANTS:

The study adhered to the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) guidelines and employed a structured, self-administered cross-sectional survey among eligible third-year undergraduates. Of 524 students initially screened, 55 were excluded due to semester ineligibility (n = 22), insufficient Bahasa Indonesia proficiency (n = 18), or refusal of contact (n = 15). Among the 469 invited, 438 provided complete responses (response rate = 93.4%) and were retained for analysis, while 31 were excluded for incomplete responses (n = 6), refusal of consent (n = 12), active psychiatric treatment (n = 9), or documented substance use disorder (n = 4). Minimal missing data were addressed through listwise deletion. Eligible participants included male and female sports science undergraduates enrolled in semesters three or four, proficient in Bahasa Indonesia, and providing written informed consent. Exclusion criteria comprised a history of treated psychiatric disorders, active substance use disorder, or incomplete survey responses.

MEASURES AND INSTRUMENTS:

The primary outcome was the impostor phenomenon, assessed using the Indonesian-adapted Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale (CIPS). This 20-item instrument employs a 5-point Likert scale, yielding total scores between 20 and 100, with higher values reflecting greater impostor severity. Internal consistency in the present sample was acceptable (Cronbach's α = 0.82-0.85). Scores were classified into four severity categories: none/minimal (20-39), moderate (40-59), frequent (60-79), and intense (≥80). Psychological predictors included self-esteem, measured by the 10-item Indonesian-adapted Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES; range 10-40, categorized as low [10-20], moderate [21-30], and high [31-40]), and anxiety, assessed with the Indonesian-adapted Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7; range 0-21, categorized as minimal [0-4], mild [5-9], moderate [10-14], and severe [≥15]).

Behavioral predictors comprised nightly sleep duration, modeled continuously in hours, and daily social media use, modeled in hours per day. Demographic and structural covariates included sex, age, cumulative grade point average (GPA), scholarship status (recipient vs. non-recipient), residential status (living with family vs. independent/dormitory), and active participation in organizational or extracurricular activities. Together, these domains provided a comprehensive framework for examining psychological, behavioral, and contextual correlates of impostor phenomenon in undergraduate sports science students.

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS:

All analyses were conducted using SPSS version 24.0 for descriptive statistics, correlational testing, and primary regression procedures, and R version 4.x for robust and quantile regression techniques not available in SPSS. Internal reliability of the three psychometric instruments was assessed with Cronbach's alpha. Shapiro-Wilk testing confirmed significant departures from normality, supporting the use of non-parametric summaries and inferential tests.

Bivariate associations between impostor phenomenon scores and predictor variables were examined using Spearman rank correlations, while group differences were evaluated with Mann-Whitney U tests accompanied by rank-biserial correlations as effect sizes. Independent predictors were identified through simultaneous-entry multiple linear regression. To clarify domain-specific contributions, a three-block hierarchical regression was performed: psychological factors (self-esteem, anxiety) were entered at Step 1; behavioral factors (sleep duration, social media use) at Step 2; and demographic/structural covariates (sex, scholarship status, residential status, GPA, organizational participation, age) at Step 3. Incremental variance explained and F-change statistics were computed at each stage.

Model robustness was further evaluated using Huber-Yohai M-estimation, median quantile regression, and bootstrap bias-corrected and accelerated confidence intervals based on 5,000 resamples for all correlation and regression estimates. Diagnostic checks included residual normality (Shapiro-Wilk), homoscedasticity (Breusch-Pagan test), multicollinearity (variance inflation factor and tolerance), residual independence (Durbin-Watson statistic), and detection of influential cases (Cook's distance). Post-hoc statistical power was estimated using G*Power 3.1, assuming a medium effect size, α = 0.05, and ten predictors. Statistical significance was defined as p < 0.05 throughout.

ETHICAL APPROVAL:

Ethical clearance for this study was granted by the Institutional Biomedical Research Ethics Committee of Hasanuddin University, South Sulawesi, Indonesia (approval code: PROTOKOL-UH25010017). All procedures were conducted in strict accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki (2013 revision). Written informed consent was obtained from each participant prior to enrollment, with explicit assurances that participation was voluntary and that withdrawal at any stage would carry no penalty or academic consequence. No personally identifiable information was collected or disclosed.

NOTE: This study was retrospectively registered. The study was conducted from June 2025 to August 2025 following the STROBE guidelines and received ethical clearance (PROTOKOL-UH25010017) from the Institutional Biomedical Research Ethics Committee of Hasanuddin University prior to study initiation. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants. No outcome measures, study design, or statistical analysis plan were modified following data collection.

• Study Type: Observational
• Enrollment (Actual): 438

Contacts and Locations

Study Locations

• Indonesia
  • South Sulawesi
    • Makassar, South Sulawesi, Indonesia, 90245
      • Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Hasanuddin University, Jl. Perintis Kemerdekaan Km. 10, Tamalanrea Makassar 90245, South Sulawesi, Indonesia

Participation Criteria

Eligibility Criteria

• Ages Eligible for Study: Child; Adult; Older Adult
• Accepts Healthy Volunteers: Yes

• Sampling Method: Non-Probability Sample

Study Population

Sports science undergraduate students enrolled in semesters three or four at a public university in Makassar, South Sulawesi, Indonesia.

Description

Inclusion Criteria:

• Active undergraduate students enrolled in semesters 3 or 4 within the sports science program at a public university in Makassar, South Sulawesi, Indonesia
• Adequate proficiency in Bahasa Indonesia
• Provision of written informed consent to participate in the study

Exclusion Criteria:

• Documented history of active or treated psychiatric disorders
• Documented history of substance use disorders
• Incomplete survey responses or refusal to provide consent

Study Plan

How is the study designed?

Number of groups / cohorts

1

Cohorts and Interventions

Group / Cohort

Intervention / Treatment

Indonesian Sports Science Undergraduates; Junior-year sports science undergraduates (semesters 3-4) at a public university in Makassar, South Sulawesi, Indonesia, recruited from June to August 2025 (n = 438 analyzed out of 469 invited; response rate 93.4%). Participants completed a single-session, self-administered survey battery assessing psychological constructs-the Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale (CIPS), Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES), and Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7)-alongside continuous behavioral measures (nightly sleep duration and daily social media usage) and self-reported demographic/structural covariates (GPA, sex, age, scholarship recipiency, residential status, and organizational participation). No intervention was administered. This was a single-group cross-sectional observational study examining independent psychological, behavioral, and structural correlates of impostor phenomenon using multivariable and hierarchical regression analyses.

Other: Self-Report Questionnaire Assessment; Participants completed a structured battery of validated self-report questionnaires on a single occasion in supervised classroom sessions. The Indonesian-adapted Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale (CIPS; 20 items) was used to evaluate cognitive and affective features of impostorism; the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES; 10 items) was used to measure global self-esteem; and the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7; 7 items) was used to assess anxiety symptom severity over the preceding two weeks. Additional self-reported survey items captured behavioral characteristics (nightly sleep duration and daily social media usage) alongside demographic and structural information (sex, age, cumulative GPA, scholarship status, residential arrangement, and organizational participation). No therapeutic, pharmacological, behavioral, or educational intervention was administered. Data collection was strictly observational and cross-sectional in nature, with no manipulation of variables, experimental co; Other Names: Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale (CIPS; 20 items); Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES; 10 items); Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7; 7 items)

What is the study measuring?

Primary Outcome Measures

Outcome Measure	Measure Description	Time Frame
Association Between Self-Esteem and Impostor Phenomenon	Spearman rank-order correlation coefficient (rho) evaluating the relationship between total global self-esteem scores assessed via the 10-item Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES; score range: 10-40, where higher scores indicate higher self-esteem) and total impostor phenomenon severity scores measured using the 20-item Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale (CIPS; score range: 20-100, where higher scores denote greater impostorism severity) among sports science undergraduates. A negative correlation indicates higher self-esteem is associated with lower impostor phenomenon severity.	Single time point baseline assessment (June to August 2025)
Association Between Anxiety Symptoms and Impostor Phenomenon	Spearman rank-order correlation coefficient (rho) evaluating the relationship between total anxiety symptom scores assessed via the 7-item Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 scale (GAD-7; score range: 0-21, where higher scores reflect higher anxiety severity) and total impostor phenomenon severity scores (CIPS; score range: 20-100). A positive correlation indicates higher anxiety symptomatology is associated with greater impostor phenomenon severity.	Single time point baseline assessment (June to August 2025)

Secondary Outcome Measures

Outcome Measure	Measure Description	Time Frame
Independent Psychological, Behavioral, and Structural Predictors of Impostor Phenomenon	Standardized regression coefficients (β) and unstandardized coefficients (B) derived from simultaneous-entry multiple linear regression, robust regression (Huber-Yohai M-estimation), median quantile regression, and hierarchical regression models predicting total CIPS scores. Evaluated domain-specific predictors include psychological factors (RSES self-esteem, GAD-7 anxiety), behavioral habits (nightly sleep duration in hours, daily social media usage in hours), and structural/demographic covariates (biological sex, cumulative GPA, age, scholarship status, residential status, and organizational participation). Total explained variance (R², adjusted R²) and domain-specific incremental variance contributions (ΔR²) are reported.	Single time point baseline assessment (June to August 2025)
Demographic and Structural Differences in Impostor Phenomenon Scores	Between-group comparisons of total CIPS scores across categorical demographic and structural subgroups (biological sex [male vs. female], scholarship status [recipient vs. non-recipient], residential arrangement [living with family vs. independent/boarding], and organizational participation [active vs. non-active]) evaluated using Mann-Whitney U tests, with effect sizes quantified using rank-biserial correlations (r rb). Higher rank scores indicate higher levels of reported impostor phenomenon within specific subgroups.	Single time point baseline assessment (June to August 2025)

Collaborators and Investigators

• Sponsor: Hasanuddin University

Study record dates

Study Major Dates

• Study Start (Actual): June 1, 2025
• Primary Completion (Actual): August 31, 2025
• Study Completion (Actual): August 31, 2025

Study Registration Dates

• First Submitted: July 21, 2026
• First Submitted That Met QC Criteria: July 21, 2026
• First Posted (Actual): July 24, 2026

Study Record Updates

• Last Update Posted (Actual): July 24, 2026
• Last Update Submitted That Met QC Criteria: July 21, 2026
• Last Verified: July 1, 2026

More Information

Terms related to this study

• Keywords: Anxiety; Sleep; Indonesia; Students; Cross-Sectional Studies; Universities; imposter syndrome
• Additional Relevant MeSH Terms: Mental Disorders; Anxiety Disorders; imposter syndrome; Health Care Quality, Access, and Evaluation; Investigative Techniques; Epidemiologic Methods; Data Collection; Health Care Evaluation Mechanisms; Quality of Health Care; Public Health; Environment and Public Health; Behavioral Disciplines and Activities; Psychological Tests; Surveys and Questionnaires; Patient Health Questionnaire
• Other Study ID Numbers: DURMAN-IMPOSTOR25; PPDS-PSY-UNHAS-2025 (Registry Identifier: DURMAN-UNHAS25)

Plan for Individual participant data (IPD)

• Plan to Share Individual Participant Data (IPD)?: NO
• IPD Plan Description: Individual participant data (IPD) will not be shared publicly or upon request to protect participant privacy and confidentiality, as explicit consent for secondary data sharing by third parties was not obtained during the ethical approval and informed consent process (Hasanuddin University Ethics Approval: PROTOKOL-UH25010017). De-identified summary statistics and aggregate data are fully presented within the manuscript and supporting information.

Drug and device information, study documents

• Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated drug product: No
• Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated device product: No