Attentional Focus and Feedback Timing in Children's Tennis Skill Learning
Effects of Attentional Focus and Feedback Timing on Children's Tennis Motor Skill Learning
This study evaluated how different attentional focus instructions and feedback timing affect tennis motor skill learning in children aged 9 to 12 years. The study used a school-clustered 4 × 2 factorial quasi-experimental design involving four primary schools in Shenzhen, China.
Each participating school implemented one of four attentional focus conditions: distal external focus, proximal external focus, internal focus, or neutral instruction. Within each school, eligible children were assigned to either immediate feedback or delayed summary feedback, resulting in eight experimental conditions. All participants completed the same standardized tennis training program for 12 weeks, with three 90-minute training sessions per week.
The study assessed children's performance in four tennis skills: forehand, backhand, volley, and serve. Skill-performance attainment and technique evaluation were assessed before and after the intervention. Retention and transfer of the learned skills were additionally assessed two weeks after completion of the intervention. The study was designed to determine whether attentional focus, feedback timing, or the interaction between these two factors influences children's acquisition, retention, and transfer of tennis motor skills.
Study Overview
Status
Conditions
Detailed Description
The study used a school-clustered 4 × 2 factorial quasi-experimental design to investigate the effects of attentional focus and feedback timing on children's tennis motor skill learning. The first experimental factor was attentional focus, with four levels: distal external focus, proximal external focus, internal focus, and neutral instruction. The second factor was feedback timing, with two levels: immediate feedback and delayed summary feedback.
The four attentional focus conditions were implemented at the school level. Each participating school was assigned one attentional focus condition according to the study implementation arrangement. Within each school, eligible participants were balanced according to sex, grade, and baseline tennis skill level and were then randomly assigned in a 1:1 ratio to either the immediate-feedback condition or the delayed-feedback condition using a computer-generated random sequence. This procedure resulted in eight experimental conditions.
All groups received the same standardized tennis training program for 12 weeks. Training was conducted three times per week, with each session lasting approximately 90 minutes. The training program included forehand, backhand, volley, and serve practice. The training content, progression, facilities, equipment, and instructor qualifications were standardized across study sites. The experimental differences between groups were limited to attentional focus instructions and the timing of feedback.
In the distal external-focus condition, children were instructed to focus on outcomes such as the ball's target location and flight trajectory. In the proximal external-focus condition, they focused on the interaction between the racket and the ball. In the internal-focus condition, they focused on body movements, movement technique, and force production. The neutral-instruction condition used conventional instructional language without a specific attentional focus cue. Participants receiving immediate feedback were provided with instructional or technical feedback immediately after each performance, whereas participants receiving delayed summary feedback received feedback after completion of a practice set.
Tennis motor skill learning was evaluated using standardized assessments of forehand, backhand, volley, and serve performance. The study examined skill acquisition after the 12-week intervention and subsequently assessed retention and transfer of the learned skills after a post-intervention interval.
Study Type
Enrollment (Actual)
Phase
- Not Applicable
Contacts and Locations
Study Locations
-
-
Guangdong
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Shenzhen, Guangdong, China, 510000
- Longhua Experimental Primary School
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Shenzhen, Guangdong, China, 510000
- Longhua Foreign Language School
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Shenzhen, Guangdong, China, 510000
- Minle Primary School
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Shenzhen, Guangdong, China, 510000
- Tiandong Primary School
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-
Participation Criteria
Eligibility Criteria
Ages Eligible for Study
- Child
Accepts Healthy Volunteers
Description
Inclusion Criteria:
- Children aged 9 to 12 years and enrolled in Grade 4 or Grade 6.
- Have basic proficiency in the four tennis motor skills of forehand, backhand, volley, and serve and are able to participate in regular tennis training.
- Right-handed.
- In good physical condition, with no serious medical condition that would interfere with participation in tennis training.
- Willing to participate in the study, with written informed consent provided by a parent or legal guardian.
Exclusion Criteria:
- Serious cardiopulmonary disease, musculoskeletal injury, neurological disease, or any other condition that makes participation in moderate-intensity physical activity inappropriate.
- A diagnosed psychiatric disorder or cognitive or behavioral condition that substantially interferes with understanding instructional cues or completing study assessments.
- Recent acute injury or pain, or medical advice to temporarily refrain from physical activity.
- Unable to complete the training, testing, or study data collection procedures according to the study protocol.
Study Plan
How is the study designed?
Design Details
- Primary Purpose: Other
- Allocation: Non-Randomized
- Interventional Model: Factorial Assignment
- Masking: None (Open Label)
Arms and Interventions
Participant Group / Arm |
Intervention / Treatment |
|---|---|
|
Experimental: Distal External Focus + Immediate Feedback
Participants received a standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session.
They were instructed to use a distal external attentional focus by directing attention toward the target location and flight trajectory of the ball.
Instructional and technical feedback consistent with this attentional focus was provided immediately after each performance.
|
During the standardized 12-week tennis training program, participants were instructed to direct their attention toward distal external effects of the movement, including the target location and flight trajectory of the ball.
The attentional-focus instructions were incorporated into forehand, backhand, volley, and serve practice.
Training was conducted three times per week, with each session lasting approximately 90 minutes.
Participants received instructional and technical feedback immediately after each tennis skill performance.
The feedback was consistent with the attentional-focus condition assigned to the participant and was intended to provide prompt information for adjustment of subsequent performance.
|
|
Experimental: Distal External Focus + Delayed Feedback
Participants received a standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session.
They were instructed to use a distal external attentional focus by directing attention toward the target location and flight trajectory of the ball.
Instructional and technical feedback consistent with this attentional focus was provided after completion of each practice set rather than immediately after each performance.
|
During the standardized 12-week tennis training program, participants were instructed to direct their attention toward distal external effects of the movement, including the target location and flight trajectory of the ball.
The attentional-focus instructions were incorporated into forehand, backhand, volley, and serve practice.
Training was conducted three times per week, with each session lasting approximately 90 minutes.
Participants received instructional and technical feedback after completion of each practice set rather than immediately after each individual performance.
Each practice set typically consisted of 10 to 15 balls.
The feedback was consistent with the assigned attentional-focus condition and allowed participants time for self-perception, error recognition, and movement adjustment before receiving external feedback.
|
|
Experimental: Proximal External Focus + Immediate Feedback
Participants received a standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session.
They were instructed to use a proximal external attentional focus by directing attention toward the point and moment of contact between the racket and the ball.
Instructional and technical feedback consistent with this attentional focus was provided immediately after each performance.
|
Participants received instructional and technical feedback immediately after each tennis skill performance.
The feedback was consistent with the attentional-focus condition assigned to the participant and was intended to provide prompt information for adjustment of subsequent performance.
During the standardized 12-week tennis training program, participants were instructed to direct their attention toward proximal external effects of the movement, particularly the point and moment of contact between the racket and the ball.
The attentional-focus instructions were incorporated into forehand, backhand, volley, and serve practice.
Training was conducted three times per week, with each session lasting approximately 90 minutes.
|
|
Experimental: Proximal External Focus + Delayed Feedback
Participants received a standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session.
They were instructed to use a proximal external attentional focus by directing attention toward the point and moment of contact between the racket and the ball.
Instructional and technical feedback consistent with this attentional focus was provided after completion of each practice set.
|
Participants received instructional and technical feedback after completion of each practice set rather than immediately after each individual performance.
Each practice set typically consisted of 10 to 15 balls.
The feedback was consistent with the assigned attentional-focus condition and allowed participants time for self-perception, error recognition, and movement adjustment before receiving external feedback.
During the standardized 12-week tennis training program, participants were instructed to direct their attention toward proximal external effects of the movement, particularly the point and moment of contact between the racket and the ball.
The attentional-focus instructions were incorporated into forehand, backhand, volley, and serve practice.
Training was conducted three times per week, with each session lasting approximately 90 minutes.
|
|
Experimental: Internal Focus + Immediate Feedback
Participants received a standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session.
They were instructed to use an internal attentional focus by directing attention toward body movements, movement technique, and force-production sequence during tennis skill performance.
Instructional and technical feedback was provided immediately after each performance.
|
Participants received instructional and technical feedback immediately after each tennis skill performance.
The feedback was consistent with the attentional-focus condition assigned to the participant and was intended to provide prompt information for adjustment of subsequent performance.
During the standardized 12-week tennis training program, participants were instructed to direct their attention toward their own body movements, technical movement patterns, and force-production sequence during tennis skill performance.
These instructions were incorporated into forehand, backhand, volley, and serve practice.
Training was conducted three times per week, with each session lasting approximately 90 minutes.
|
|
Experimental: Internal Focus + Delayed Feedback
Participants received a standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session.
They were instructed to use an internal attentional focus by directing attention toward body movements, movement technique, and force-production sequence during tennis skill performance.
Instructional and technical feedback was provided after completion of each practice set.
|
Participants received instructional and technical feedback after completion of each practice set rather than immediately after each individual performance.
Each practice set typically consisted of 10 to 15 balls.
The feedback was consistent with the assigned attentional-focus condition and allowed participants time for self-perception, error recognition, and movement adjustment before receiving external feedback.
During the standardized 12-week tennis training program, participants were instructed to direct their attention toward their own body movements, technical movement patterns, and force-production sequence during tennis skill performance.
These instructions were incorporated into forehand, backhand, volley, and serve practice.
Training was conducted three times per week, with each session lasting approximately 90 minutes.
|
|
Active Comparator: Neutral Instruction + Immediate Feedback
Participants received the same standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session.
They received conventional tennis instruction without a specific external or internal attentional focus cue.
Instructional and technical feedback was provided immediately after each performance.
|
Participants received instructional and technical feedback immediately after each tennis skill performance.
The feedback was consistent with the attentional-focus condition assigned to the participant and was intended to provide prompt information for adjustment of subsequent performance.
Participants received conventional tennis instructional cues during the standardized 12-week training program without specific external or internal attentional-focus instructions.
Training content, progression, frequency, and duration were the same as in the other attentional-focus conditions.
Training was conducted three times per week, with each session lasting approximately 90 minutes.
|
|
Active Comparator: Neutral Instruction + Delayed Feedback
Participants received the same standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session.
They received conventional tennis instruction without a specific external or internal attentional focus cue.
Instructional and technical feedback was provided after completion of each practice set.
|
Participants received instructional and technical feedback after completion of each practice set rather than immediately after each individual performance.
Each practice set typically consisted of 10 to 15 balls.
The feedback was consistent with the assigned attentional-focus condition and allowed participants time for self-perception, error recognition, and movement adjustment before receiving external feedback.
Participants received conventional tennis instructional cues during the standardized 12-week training program without specific external or internal attentional-focus instructions.
Training content, progression, frequency, and duration were the same as in the other attentional-focus conditions.
Training was conducted three times per week, with each session lasting approximately 90 minutes.
|
What is the study measuring?
Primary Outcome Measures
Outcome Measure |
Measure Description |
Time Frame |
|---|---|---|
|
Change in Tennis Skill-Performance Attainment Score From Baseline to Week 12
Time Frame: Baseline and Week 12
|
Tennis skill-performance attainment was assessed for four tennis motor skills: forehand, backhand, volley, and serve.
Participants completed predefined performance tasks, and their performance was evaluated according to prespecified task-specific scoring criteria.
The primary outcome was the change in skill-performance attainment from baseline to the end of the 12-week intervention.
|
Baseline and Week 12
|
|
Change in Tennis Technique Evaluation Score From Baseline to Week 12
Time Frame: Baseline and Week 12
|
Tennis technique was evaluated for forehand, backhand, volley, and serve using standardized technique-evaluation criteria.
The assessment focused on movement structure, body coordination, racket and ball control, and overall technical quality.
The primary outcome was the change in technique evaluation score from baseline to the end of the 12-week intervention.
|
Baseline and Week 12
|
Secondary Outcome Measures
Outcome Measure |
Measure Description |
Time Frame |
|---|---|---|
|
Tennis Skill Retention Score at Week 14
Time Frame: Week 14 (2 weeks after completion of the intervention)
|
Retention of the learned tennis motor skills was assessed two weeks after completion of the 12-week intervention.
Participants were evaluated on the stability of their performance in the learned tennis skills, including forehand, backhand, volley, and serve, using the predefined study assessment procedures.
|
Week 14 (2 weeks after completion of the intervention)
|
|
Tennis Skill Transfer Score at Week 14
Time Frame: Week 14 (2 weeks after completion of the intervention)
|
Transfer of the learned tennis motor skills was assessed two weeks after completion of the 12-week intervention.
Participants were evaluated on their ability to apply the learned tennis skills under modified task conditions using the predefined study assessment procedures.
|
Week 14 (2 weeks after completion of the intervention)
|
Collaborators and Investigators
Sponsor
Study record dates
Study Major Dates
Study Start (Actual)
Primary Completion (Actual)
Study Completion (Actual)
Study Registration Dates
First Submitted
First Submitted That Met QC Criteria
First Posted (Actual)
Study Record Updates
Last Update Posted (Actual)
Last Update Submitted That Met QC Criteria
Last Verified
More Information
Terms related to this study
Keywords
Other Study ID Numbers
- TJUS2023-051
Plan for Individual participant data (IPD)
Plan to Share Individual Participant Data (IPD)?
IPD Plan Description
Drug and device information, study documents
Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated drug product
Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated device product
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