Effects of Music and Vibration on Morning Muscle Strength and Cognitive Measures in Males

Effects of Preferred Music Tempi and Whole-body Vibration on Morning Muscle Strength and Cognitive Measures in Males: A Standardized Approach.

Athletes often compete in the morning when they are biologically weaker; normally in competition heats or quarterfinals to qualify for the finals scheduled in the evening. Some athletes may even choose to perform at submaximal levels in these qualifying rounds, especially when they are expected to perform multiple times in the same day (such as weightlifting at the Olympic Games). Gross muscular performance such as power output or force production is greater in the evening than the morning (~3-14% variation. Similarly, time-trial performance and repeated sprint performance (RSP) a good measure of performance in team sport) is ~3 and 5 % greater in the evening than the morning. To the best of our knowledge, no study has yet investigated combined effect of vibration technology after a warm-up or music of different frequencies during testing on cognitive and physiological performance. As a daily variation in muscle strength has been widely reported in a similar population the aims of the present study are to investigate if we can improve morning muscle performance by vibration technology after a warm-up or music of different frequencies during testing on cognitive and physiological performance.

Study Overview

• Status: Completed
• Conditions: Whole Body Vibration; Music Exposure; NoMusic - Control; Music Plus 15 Percent Tempo; WBV and Music
• Intervention / Treatment: Other: Original Music; Other: Music intervention; Other: Control; Device: Whole-body vibration; Device: Whole-body vibration and music

Detailed Description

Fifteen male adults. Through interviews, it was established that the volunteers had minimal knowledge of the effects of time-of-day or time-since-sleep on human performance. Verbal explanation of the experimental procedure was provided to everyone; this included the aims of the study; the possible risks associated with participation and the experimental procedures to be utilized. Any questions were answered. Individuals then provided written, informed consent before participating in the study. The experimental procedures were approved by the Human Ethics Committee at Liverpool John Moores University (ETHICS CODE: 251108LJMUREC75). The study was conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of the journal and complied with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki.

All participants were required to visit the biomechanics laboratory (Liverpool, UK) on eight occasions. Participants completed (i) one maximum repetition (1RM) for bench press and back squat, ii) three familiarization sessions of strength and cognitive performance tests one week prior to the experimental protocol. During familiarizations participants completed a 7-day food diary that was analyzed using Nutritics® analysis software (2026, Education Edition, version 6.20, Ireland) by a SENr registered Sports and Exercise Nutritionist. The remaining sessions consisted of iii) three experimental sessions, all at least 72-h apart as a standardized recovery period. The experimental part comprised three experimental trials a) preferred music at original tempo (MUS), b) preferred music accelerated 15% (MUS15) and c) No-Music (CON)] between 07:00 and 08:40 h. Participants retired the previous night around 22:30 h, woke up at 06:30 h and arrived at the laboratory at 07:00 h in a fasted state. Participants were instructed to avoid training or intense physical activity 48 h prior to any of the visits, otherwise, participants maintained their normal daily routines. Music was delivered during strength and power measures and whilst resting through participant's own headphones in both music conditions. Loudness was normalized for both track-set and played at ~75dB to avoid practical and auditory-health concerns. Researchers and participants were blinded to intervention and conditions, track-sets were labeled MUS1 and MUS 2 and duration were matched by adding and empty track at the end of MUS15 to match duration removing biases. The order of treatment was revealed at the end of the by a researcher responsible for anonymization and randomization (JA).

All trials were performed with only one participant at a time, but with a staggered start so one participant came in at 06:45, the next 07:00 h and the last for that morning's session at 07:15 h. This scheduling for participants was kept consistent for all sessions. All participants lived no more than 15 mins away from the University laboratories. Participants were equally allocated, based on their 1RM for bench press and back squat into three groups (A, B and C), by listing 1RMs from highest to lowest and assigning letters A, B and C in order. The incidence of the learning effect was minimized by assigning the experimental conditions in counterbalanced order. The present study was carried out between the months of November to February (UK Autumn to Winter), with morning sunlight exposure limited to <80 Lux before arriving at the laboratory. The sunrise range for the duration of the study was 07:12 to 07:03 h.

2.3. Music intervention The music intervention was designed using a structured protocol informed by findings from previous experimental studies. Existing research has examined music across multiple dimensions, including preferred versus non-preferred music, fast versus slow tempo, high versus low volume, self-selected versus researcher-selected tracks, explicit versus censored content and genre differences. Based on this literature, the present intervention was developed based on modes of music selection and levels of intensity previously associated with beneficial effects on strength-endurance, maximal strength, and affective responses.

2.3.1. Post-session - Brunel music rating inventory-2 (BMRI-2) To ensure MUS was highly motivational and to understand how time-stretching may affect MUS15, participants were required to complete the BMRI-2 (BMRI PAPER REFERENCE HERE) assessing each track-set's characteristic.

2.4. Protocol and measurements: familiarization sessions The participants completed three familiarization sessions of all the strength, cognitive and questionnaire measures, before being considered as ready to participate in the study. Familiarization sessions took place at 09:30 h over a three-week period and finished one week before the study commenced to minimize learning effects. Participants arrived 0.5 hours before the start of the test and rested in a seated position, to minimize the influence of prior muscle activity. Participants completed the familiarization in the following order: i) cognitive battery of tests, ii) isometric maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) with and without percutaneous electrical stimulation, iii) back squat and bench press.

i) Cognitive battery of tests Trail Making Test (TMT; parts A and B) Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test Stroop word-colour interference test

ii) Isometric maximal voluntary contraction Participants performed isometric MVCs of the quadriceps muscles (3 s duration), both with and without twitch interpolation percutaneous stimulation.

Twitch interpolation The quadriceps were electrically stimulated using two moistened surface electrodes which were positioned proximally over the vastus lateralis and distally over the vastus medialis. The skin was prepared prior to placement of each electrode by shaving and light abrasion of the skin, followed by cleaning with an isopropyl alcohol swab.

Voluntary Activation = = [1 - (Size of interpolated twitch / Size of resting twitch)] x 100

During familiarization sessions, participants alternated between performing MVCs with and without twitch interpolation, so that approximately three trials of each were performed within each session. Standardized strong verbal encouragement during each familiarization session/trial and real-time visual feedback of their performance was provided to the participants via the computer display onto a large screen placed in front of them.

iii) Back squat and bench press Participants were familiarized with back squat and bench press three times prior to commencement of the testing cycle. Each participant was asked to perform the back squat with incremental loads (40, 60, 80% 1RM) for one repetition at each load and 5-min rest was allowed between each effort. Likewise for bench press, each participant performed one repetition against each incremental load (40, 60 and 80 % 1RM) and again 5-min rest was given between each working effort. This was done so that the upper loads required for the experimental trials were known to be comfortably within each of the participants' physical capabilities and as such there was minimal likelihood of them failing to perform the required efforts for data collection.

2.4. Experimental Protocol and Measurements The experimental sessions took place a week after the last familiarization with 72 h recovery between the three experimental conditions. Upon arrival at the laboratory, they were asked to insert a soft flexible rectal probe, approximately 10 cm beyond the external anal sphincter. Participants then rested for 30 min in seated position to assess resting rectal temperature (Trec). Skin temperature (Tsk) was assessed simultaneously by skin thermistors, which were placed at four locations on the left side of the body. The average of the last 5 min of the 30 min resting period was recorded for resting Trec and Tsk temperatures.

Participants completed profile of mood states questionnaire, their subjective rating of sleep (using sleep questions from the Liverpool Jet lag Questionnaire; effort and rating of perceived exertion (RPE). After the initial rest measurements, participants warmed up on a cycle ergometer for 5 min at 150 W. Post warm-up, participants removed rectal probes in private and skin thermistors were taken off. After which, MVC and bench press and back squat exercises were then undertaken.

• Study Type: Interventional
• Enrollment (Actual): 14
• Phase: Not Applicable

Contacts and Locations

Study Locations

• United Kingdom
  • Merseyside
    • Liverpool, Merseyside, United Kingdom, L3 3AF
      • Tom Reilly Building (LJMU)

Participation Criteria

Eligibility Criteria

• Ages Eligible for Study: Adult; Older Adult
• Accepts Healthy Volunteers: Yes

Description

Inclusion Criteria:

• Healthy adults
• 18-35 years old
• Injury-free
• ≥ 2 years of weight/strength training experience
• Not receiving any pharmacological treatment (including non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, NSAIDs) throughout the study period
• Low habitual caffeine consumers (≤ 150mg per day)
• No preference to training regarding time-of-day

Exclusion Criteria:

• Depressed mood (from the Beck depression inventory)
• Poor sleep quality (a Pittsburgh sleep quality index global score >5
• Recent shiftwork or travel across multiple time-zones
• 'Extreme' chronotype (assessed via the Composite Morningness Questionnaire
• Risk factors and/or symptoms of cardiovascular disease.
• Minimal knowledge of the effects of time-of-day or time-since-sleep on human performance

Study Plan

How is the study designed?

Design Details

• Primary Purpose: Treatment
• Allocation: Randomized
• Interventional Model: Crossover Assignment
• Masking: Double

Number of Arms

3

Arms and Interventions

Participant Group / Arm	Intervention / Treatment
Experimental: Group 1; i) NoMusic, ii) MUS, iii) MUS15, iv) Vibration, v) Vibration and Music	Other: Original Music; ~20 Self-selected preferred "generally" motivational music between 110 to 130 bpm; Other: Music intervention; Same as 'Original Music' but time stretched by 15%; Other: Control; No Music; Device: Whole-body vibration; Whole body vibration, for 15 minutes at 60Hz; Device: Whole-body vibration and music; Whole-body vibration for 15 minutes at 60Hz, plus Original music intervention during performance; Other Names: VIB+MUS
Experimental: Group 2; i) MUS15, ii) Vibration, iii) NoMusic, iv) Vibration and Music v) MUS	Other: Original Music; ~20 Self-selected preferred "generally" motivational music between 110 to 130 bpm; Other: Music intervention; Same as 'Original Music' but time stretched by 15%; Other: Control; No Music; Device: Whole-body vibration; Whole body vibration, for 15 minutes at 60Hz; Device: Whole-body vibration and music; Whole-body vibration for 15 minutes at 60Hz, plus Original music intervention during performance; Other Names: VIB+MUS
Experimental: Group 3; i)Vibration and music, ii) MUS, iii) MUS15, iv) NoMusic, v) Vibration	Other: Original Music; ~20 Self-selected preferred "generally" motivational music between 110 to 130 bpm; Other: Music intervention; Same as 'Original Music' but time stretched by 15%; Other: Control; No Music; Device: Whole-body vibration; Whole body vibration, for 15 minutes at 60Hz; Device: Whole-body vibration and music; Whole-body vibration for 15 minutes at 60Hz, plus Original music intervention during performance; Other Names: VIB+MUS

What is the study measuring?

Primary Outcome Measures

Outcome Measure	Measure Description	Time Frame
Morning peak force production (N) measured via the Biodex Isometric MVC, with and without percutaneous stimulation.	To assess the effect of music on morning peak force production (N) measured via the Biodex Isometric MVC, with and without percutaneous stimulation.	From familiarisation to the final experimental session (~4 weeks)
Average and peak velocity	Average and peak velocity, measure in meter per second (ms-1), for bench press and back squat at 40, 60 and 80% 1RM (maximum repetition). Body mass was factored into the back squat exercise, as this is a whole-body movement, but not into the bench press using the MuscleLab force-velocity linear encoder (Muscle Lab, Ergotest version 4010, Norway)	From familiarisation to the final experimental session (~4 weeks)
Average force	Average force, measured in Newtons (N) for bench press and back squat at 40, 60 and 80% 1RM (maximum repetition). Body mass was factored into the back squat exercise, as this is a whole-body movement, but not into the bench press using the MuscleLab force-velocity linear encoder (Muscle Lab, Ergotest version 4010, Norway)	From familiarisation to the final experimental session (~4 weeks)
Average and peak power	Average and peak power, measured in Watts (W) for bench press and back squat at 40, 60 and 80% 1RM (maximum repetition). Body mass was factored into the back squat exercise, as this is a whole-body movement, but not into the bench press using the MuscleLab force-velocity linear encoder (Muscle Lab, Ergotest version 4010, Norway)	From familiarisation to the final experimental session (~4 weeks)
time to peak velocity and power	time to peak velocity and power, measured in seconds (s) bench press and back squat at 40, 60 and 80% 1RM (maximum repetition). Body mass was factored into the back squat exercise, as this is a whole-body movement, but not into the bench press using the MuscleLab force-velocity linear encoder (Muscle Lab, Ergotest version 4010, Norway)	From familiarisation to the final experimental session (~4 weeks)

Secondary Outcome Measures

Outcome Measure	Measure Description	Time Frame
Morning Trail Making Test time to completion in seconds (TMT; parts A and B)	Music effects on morning Trail Making Test time to completion in seconds (TMT; parts A and B). In part A the circles are numbered 1-25, and the participant is instructed to draw lines to connect the numbers in ascending order. In part B, the circles include both numbers (1-13) and letters (A-L) and the participant is instructed to draw lines to connect the circles in ascending pattern but with the added task of alternating between numbers and letters (i.e., 1-A-2-B-3-C etc.). In both parts the participant is instructed to connect to the circles as fast as possible, without lifting the pencil from the paper. If an error is made, this is pointed out immediately and the participant is allowed to correct it. During the test, time to completion is measured, with a higher time indicative of the greater impairment.	From enrolment to last experimental session (4 weeks)
Morning Stroop word-color interference test	Stroop word-colour interference test. The participants were asked to read out their responses to words or colours for 45 s as quickly as possible and to leave no errors uncorrected. This was filmed and the number of errors and total amount completed was recorded and analysed. The first sheet had text (red, blue, yellow, black and green) in black ink (naming word test, W). The second sheet had blocks of colour corresponding to the text on the first sheet (naming colour test, C). With the third sheet, the participants had to read out the word (which was coloured differently to the word, e.g., the word was yellow and the colour red, referred to as the naming colour of word test, CW) and for the fourth sheet, the participants had to read out the colon (which was wrongly named, e.g., the colour was yellow but the word was red, referred to as the naming of word not colour test, WC). In this fourth sheet, the words were printed in the reverse order to the third sheet.	From familiarisation to final experimental session (~4 weeks)

Other Outcome Measures

Outcome Measure	Measure Description	Time Frame
Habitual caffeine consumption	Habitual caffeine consumption was assessed using the caffeine consumption questionnaire (CCQ), where caffeine intake was assessed in the morning, afternoon, evening and night. Total daily intake was expressed in mg.	Baseline
Rectal and Skin Temperature	Rectal temperature by a soft flexible rectal probe (mini-thermistor, Grant instruments, Shepreth, UK) approximately 10 cm beyond the external anal sphincter. Duration in each session no longer than 35 mins. Skin temperature (Tsk) was assessed simultaneously by skin thermistors (Grant Instruments, Squirrel 2010 series, Shepreth, UK), which were placed at four locations on the left side of the body (chest [ch], forearm [f], thigh [th] and calf [ca]). Duration in each session no longer than 35 mins.	From familiarisation to the final experimental session (~4 weeks)
Sleep questionnaires	Sleep questions from the Liverpool Jet lag Questionnaire: get to sleep, how well slept, waking time and alertness after waking. Measured on a -5 (later or worst) to +5 scale (more or earlier) where ZERO is compared to normal.	From familiarisation to the final experimental session (~4 weeks)
Self-reported food diary	7-day food diary that was analyzed using Nutritics® analysis software by a SENr registered Sports and Exercise Nutritionist. Data is presented in macro-nutrients and micro-nutrient diet.	Baseline
chronotype	Extreme chronotype (assessed via the Composite Morningness Questionnaire) to assess morning, intermediate and evening types. Where Evening type scores 22 and less, Intermediate type 22-43 and Morning type 44 and above.	Baseline
Depressed mood	Depressed mood severity from the Beck depression inventory (BDI).21 questions were answered (with 4 answers, 0= I do not feel and 3 = I am so..). The values summated to scores where 0-9 is minimal depression, 10-18 mild and 19-29 moderate depression. 30-63 severe depression. This takes 60	Baseline

Collaborators and Investigators

• Sponsor: Liverpool John Moores University

Publications and helpful links

General Publications

• DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2006.00586.x
• https://doi.org/10.2147/CIA.S30048
• DOI: 10.1111/sms.12979
• DOI: 10.1177/00315125211002406
• https://doi.org/10.3390/ jfmk6020033
• http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/bul0000216

Study record dates

Study Major Dates

• Study Start (Actual): November 17, 2025
• Primary Completion (Actual): December 19, 2025
• Study Completion (Actual): February 27, 2026

Study Registration Dates

• First Submitted: April 14, 2026
• First Submitted That Met QC Criteria: April 23, 2026
• First Posted (Actual): April 30, 2026

Study Record Updates

• Last Update Posted (Actual): April 30, 2026
• Last Update Submitted That Met QC Criteria: April 23, 2026
• Last Verified: April 1, 2026

More Information

Terms related to this study

• Keywords: Music; Whole body vibration; WBV; Morning strength; Morning cognitive performance
• Other Study ID Numbers: 251108LJMUREC75

Plan for Individual participant data (IPD)

• Plan to Share Individual Participant Data (IPD)?: NO
• IPD Plan Description: IPD unavailable due to privacy or ethical restrictions

Drug and device information, study documents

• Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated drug product: No
• Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated device product: No