Neuroscience-Based Exercise Training in Female Volleyball Players

Effect of Neuroscience-Based Exercise Training on Cortical Activation, Focus, and Performance in Professional Female Volleyball Players

24 volunteer professional female volleyball players (aged 16-21), licensed in the Turkish Volleyball Federation (TVF) Women's Volleyball League 2 and 3, will be included in the study. Participants will be randomized into intervention (n=12) and control (n=12) groups using www.randomizer.org. The intervention group will receive an 8-week (3 days/week) neuro-athletic exercise training program, including eye warm-up exercises and volleyball-specific visual and motor coordination stations, in addition to their regular training. The control group will continue with regular training only. Both groups will have equal total training time.

Visual attention and decision-making strategies will be measured with a wearable eye-tracking system (Pupil Labs Invisible) during a serve task. Cortical activation (oxygenated and deoxygenated hemoglobin levels) in the frontal cortex during the same serve task will be measured simultaneously with functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). Sport-specific physical fitness will be evaluated with the T-Agility Test, radar gun serve speed measurement, VERT wearable jump analysis system, Y-Balance Test, and sit-and-reach test.

All assessments will be conducted before training begins and after the 8-week program. The study aims to determine whether neuro-athletic exercise training improves cortical activation, visual attention, decision-making processes, and sport-specific physical fitness parameters in professional female volleyball players, compared to a control group receiving regular training only.

Study Overview

• Status: Recruiting
• Conditions: Athletic Performance; Gaze Tracking; Cortical Activation
• Intervention / Treatment: Behavioral: Exercise

Detailed Description

Volleyball requires high-level cognitive and physical performance, including agility, decision-making, and motor coordination, often performed under time pressure. Neuro-athletic training is an emerging approach that integrates neurofeedback techniques with sport-specific exercises, targeting cognitive and motor functions through neuroplasticity-based principles. This approach aims to improve afferent and efferent neural system coordination, sensory processing, and motor control, which may translate into improved athletic performance and reduced injury risk.

This study investigates the effect of an 8-week neuro-athletic exercise training program on cortical activation, visual attention, decision-making processes, and sport-specific physical fitness in professional female volleyball players, using a randomized, controlled, parallel-group design.

A total of 24 female volleyball players, licensed in the Turkish Volleyball Federation (TVF) Women's Volleyball League 2 and League 3, aged 16-21 years, will be randomly allocated into an intervention group (n=12) and a control group (n=12) using www.randomizer.org. Sample size was determined using G*Power software (independent samples t-test, between-group comparison) with 95% power, 0.05 type-1 error, and a high effect size (f=0.75), with a 20% margin added to account for potential dropout.

The intervention group will receive a structured neuro-athletic exercise training program, 3 days per week for 8 weeks, added to their regular volleyball training as a warm-up component. The program includes eye warm-up exercises (eye massage, palming) and volleyball-specific visual-motor coordination stations: Saccade and Anti-Saccade stations, Smart Optometry station, Brock String, Star Chart station, and Pinhole Glasses Small Area Game. The control group will continue their regular training, warm-up, and cool-down routine without additional intervention. Total training time will be kept equal between groups to prevent differences in overall training load.

All participants will be assessed before the intervention begins and after the 8-week program. Primary assessments include:

Eye-tracking (Pupil Labs Invisible wearable system) to evaluate visual attention, gaze fixation, and visual search strategies during a serve task.

Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) to measure frontal cortex oxygenated (HbO) and deoxygenated (HbR) hemoglobin levels simultaneously during the same serve task, comparing pre-task, during-task, and post-task signal changes.

Secondary assessments include sport-specific physical fitness parameters:

T-Agility Test (agility, change of direction, coordination), with reaction time recorded via BlazePod integrated lights.

Serve speed, measured using a radar gun (Bushnell Velocity Speed Gun). Vertical jump performance (jump height, peak velocity, landing force), measured using the VERT wearable jump analysis system.

Y-Balance Test (dynamic balance and proprioception). Sit-and-Reach Test (lumbar and hamstring flexibility).

• Study Type: Interventional
• Enrollment (Estimated): 24
• Phase: Not Applicable

Contacts and Locations

• Study Contact: Name: OZGE ECEM SENEL, PT, MSc; Phone Number: +905392642868; Email: vinaricecem@hotmail.com

Study Locations

• Turkey (Türkiye)
  • Zeytinburnu
    • Istanbul, Zeytinburnu, Turkey (Türkiye), 34010
      • Recruiting
      • Istinye University Physiotherapy and Rehabilitation Practice and Research Center
      • Contact: OZGE ECEM SENEL, PT, MSc; Phone Number: +905392642868; Email: vinaricecem@hotmail.com

Participation Criteria

Eligibility Criteria

• Ages Eligible for Study: Child; Adult
• Accepts Healthy Volunteers: Yes

Description

Inclusion Criteria:

• Licensed female volleyball player in the Turkish Volleyball Federation (TVF) Women's Volleyball League 2 or League 3
• Aged between 16 and 21 years
• Actively participating in the sport for at least 3 years

Exclusion Criteria:

• Any history of musculoskeletal surgery
• An injury within the last 3 months that prevented participation in training or competition
• Any diagnosed visual impairment, visual function disorder, or vestibular system-related problem

Study Plan

How is the study designed?

Design Details

• Primary Purpose: Basic Science
• Allocation: Randomized
• Interventional Model: Parallel Assignment
• Masking: None (Open Label)

Number of Arms

2

Arms and Interventions

Participant Group / Arm	Intervention / Treatment
Experimental: Intervention Group; Participants will receive an 8-week (3 days/week) neuroscience-based exercise training program in addition to their regular volleyball training. The program includes eye warm-up exercises (eye massage, palming) and volleyball-specific visual and motor coordination stations (Saccade, Anti-Saccade, Smart Optometry, Brock String, Star Chart, and Pinhole Glasses Small Area Game stations).	Behavioral: Exercise; An 8-week (3 days/week) structured program added to regular training, combining: (1) eye warm-up exercises (eye massage, palming) and (2) volleyball-specific visual-motor coordination stations, including Saccade, Anti-Saccade, and Smart Optometry stations (targeting visual tracking, reaction speed, and eye-hand coordination), Brock String (depth perception and eye-hand coordination), Star Chart station (visual scanning and spatial awareness), and Pinhole Glasses Small Area Game (restricted peripheral vision to enhance focused attention and quick decision-making). Sessions are conducted by a physiotherapist, with total training time matched to the control group.
No Intervention: Control Group; Participants will continue with their regular volleyball training routine, including standard warm-up and cool-down, without any additional neuroscience-based exercise intervention. Total training time will be kept equal to the intervention group.

What is the study measuring?

Primary Outcome Measures

Outcome Measure	Measure Description	Time Frame
Functional near-infrared spectroscopy	Cortical Activation During Serve Task (fNIRS), measured using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) during a serve task, comparing pre-task, during-task, and post-task signal changes. Change in oxygenated (HbO) and deoxygenated (HbR) hemoglobin levels in the frontal cortex.	Baseline and after 8 weeks
Pupil Lab Invisible Eye Tracker	Visual Attention and Decision-Making (Eye-Tracking Parameters). Measured using a wearable eye-tracking system (Pupil Labs Invisible) during a serve task, including total fixation duration and visual scan path parameters, automatically quantified using Pupil Player software. Measured change in gaze fixation duration and visual search patterns	Baseline and after 8 weeks

Secondary Outcome Measures

Outcome Measure	Measure Description	Time Frame
T-Agility Test	Time to complete the T-Agility Test course, measured in seconds with a stopwatch; reaction time also recorded via BlazePod integrated lights in milliseconds. Measured change in T-Agility Test completion time	Baseline and after 8 weeks
Serve Speed	Measured change in serve speed. Measured in km/h using a radar gun (Bushnell Velocity Speed Gun) during 5 successful serves; highest recorded value used for analysis.	Baseline and after 8 weeks
Vertical Jump Performance	Measured using the VERT wearable jump analysis system across 5 maximal vertical jumps using the countermovement jump technique. Measured change in jump height, peak jump velocity, and landing force	Baseline and after 8 weeks
Y-Balance Test	Measured change in Y-Balance Test composite score. Composite reach score calculated from anterior, posteromedial, and posterolateral reach directions, normalized to limb length.	Baseline and after 8 weeks
Sit-and-Reach Test	Measured change in sit-and-reach distance. Measures lumbar and hamstring muscle flexibility using a sit-and-reach box; distance recorded in centimeters.	Baseline and after 8 weeks

Collaborators and Investigators

• Sponsor: Özge Ecem Şenel
• Investigators: Principal Investigator: OZGE ECEM SENEL, PT, MSc, Istinye University

Publications and helpful links

General Publications

• Soylu, C.; Altundag, E. Rewiring for Victory: Neuro-Athletic Training Enhances Flexibility, Serve Speed, and Upper Limb Performance in Elite Volleyball Players-A Randomized Controlled Trial. Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 11102. https://doi.org/10.3390/app142311102

Study record dates

Study Major Dates

• Study Start (Actual): February 20, 2026
• Primary Completion (Estimated): September 1, 2026
• Study Completion (Estimated): September 30, 2026

Study Registration Dates

• First Submitted: June 24, 2026
• First Submitted That Met QC Criteria: June 24, 2026
• First Posted (Actual): June 30, 2026

Study Record Updates

• Last Update Posted (Actual): June 30, 2026
• Last Update Submitted That Met QC Criteria: June 24, 2026
• Last Verified: June 1, 2026

More Information

Terms related to this study

• Additional Relevant MeSH Terms: Motor Activity; Movement; Musculoskeletal Physiological Phenomena; Musculoskeletal and Neural Physiological Phenomena; Exercise
• Other Study ID Numbers: 2026/43

Plan for Individual participant data (IPD)

• Plan to Share Individual Participant Data (IPD)?: UNDECIDED

Drug and device information, study documents

• Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated drug product: No
• Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated device product: No