Sports-Based Cognitive Game Program and Attention in Athletes

August 3, 2026 updated by: Hande Baba Kaya, Duzce University

The Effect of a Sports-Based Cognitive Game Development Program on Attention Level and Prefrontal EEG Theta/Beta Ratio

This study looked at whether a 12-week sports-based cognitive game program could improve attention and change brain activity in athletes. Ninety-five active athletes from Düzce University were randomly placed into two groups. One group (45 people) took part in a cognitive game program twice a week for 12 weeks, in addition to their regular sports training. Each session lasted 45 minutes and included games designed to build attention, reaction speed, decision-making, and multitasking skills. The other group (50 people) continued their usual sports training without any additional program.

Before and after the 12 weeks, all participants completed a paper-and-pencil attention test (the d2 Attention Test) and had a short, painless brain-wave recording (EEG) taken from the forehead area while sitting quietly with their eyes closed. The researchers compared how much each group's attention scores and brain-wave patterns changed over the 12 weeks.

The results showed that the group who took part in the cognitive game program improved significantly more in attention performance than the group who did not, and also showed a favorable change in their brain-wave pattern (a lower theta/beta ratio, which is linked to better attention control). The group that continued regular training without the program showed little change in either measure.

These findings suggest that adding structured, game-based cognitive training to regular sports training may offer additional benefits for attention and brain function beyond physical training alone.

Study Overview

Status

Completed

Conditions

Intervention / Treatment

Detailed Description

This study used a pre-test-post-test, randomized controlled experimental design to examine the effects of a 12-week sports-based cognitive game development program on selective attention performance and prefrontal EEG theta/beta ratio (TBR) in active university athletes.

Participants were randomly assigned to an experimental group (n = 45) or a control group (n = 50) using a computer-assisted random number table. Baseline equivalence between groups was confirmed for both outcome measures prior to the intervention (d2 TNE: t(93) = -0.514, p = .608; Fz theta/beta: t(93) = 1.128, p = .262).

The experimental group participated in a structured, five-stage sports-based cognitive game development program, delivered twice weekly for 12 weeks (24 sessions total, 45 minutes per session). The program followed a gradual cognitive load principle across five stages: (1) adaptation and basic cognitive infrastructure, (2) attention and reaction development, (3) decision-making and strategy, (4) concentration and multitasking performance, and (5) reinforcement and transfer to sport. Each session consisted of five fixed components: greeting and orientation (3 min), attention warm-up exercises (5 min), cognitive reaction games (15 min), strategy and decision-making games (15 min), and evaluation/closing (7 min). Sessions were delivered by a single PhD-level sport sciences researcher, and fidelity was monitored using structured session control forms.

The control group continued their regular sports training without any additional intervention during the 12-week period.

Outcome measures were collected at baseline and following the 12-week period:

  • Selective attention performance was assessed using the d2 Attention Test, with the Total Net Error (TNE) score as the primary behavioral outcome (TNE = TN - E2).
  • Prefrontal EEG theta (4-8 Hz) to beta (13-21 Hz) power ratio was recorded from the Fz electrode (International 10-20 system, linked-earlobe reference A1-A2) using a Nexus 10 Mk II neurofeedback device and BioTrace+ software, during a 10-minute eyes-closed resting condition (first and last 30 seconds discarded; minimum 8 minutes of artifact-free data required per participant).

The d2 Attention Test and EEG recording were conducted in separate sessions on the same day, in a fixed order (d2 test first, then EEG), separated by a minimum 30-minute rest interval, to control for order and fatigue effects.

Data were analyzed using 2 (Group: Experimental, Control) x 2 (Time: Pre-test, Post-test) mixed-design ANOVA, with Bonferroni-corrected post hoc comparisons (adjusted alpha = .0125) and Welch t-tests where variance homogeneity was violated. Gender was examined as a covariate using ANCOVA, given its known association with EEG frequency characteristics; gender did not significantly affect either outcome after controlling for pre-test scores.

Note: As data collection for this study was already complete at the time of registration, this is a retrospective trial registration.

Study Type

Interventional

Enrollment (Actual)

95

Phase

  • Not Applicable

Contacts and Locations

This section provides the contact details for those conducting the study, and information on where this study is being conducted.

Study Locations

  • Turkey (Türkiye)
      • Düzce, Turkey (Türkiye), 81620
        • Duzce University, Faculty of Sport Sciences

Participation Criteria

Researchers look for people who fit a certain description, called eligibility criteria. Some examples of these criteria are a person's general health condition or prior treatments.

Eligibility Criteria

Ages Eligible for Study

  • Adult

Accepts Healthy Volunteers

Yes

Description

Inclusion Criteria:

  • Actively engaged in sports/regular athletic training
  • No neurological or psychiatric diagnosis in the past six months
  • Continuing a regular exercise program throughout the study period
  • Full participation in all intervention sessions (for experimental group) or willingness to continue regular sports training (for control group)
  • Aged 18-25 years
  • Voluntary participation with written informed consent

Exclusion Criteria:

  • Neurological or psychiatric diagnosis within the past six months
  • Inability to attend the required number of sessions
  • Withdrawal of informed consent

Study Plan

This section provides details of the study plan, including how the study is designed and what the study is measuring.

How is the study designed?

Design Details

  • Primary Purpose: Basic Science
  • Allocation: Randomized
  • Interventional Model: Parallel Assignment
  • Masking: None (Open Label)

Arms and Interventions

Participant Group / Arm
Intervention / Treatment
Experimental: Experimental Group
Participants received a 12-week sports-based cognitive game development program (24 sessions, twice weekly, 45 min/session) in addition to regular sports training.
Behavioral: Sports-Based Cognitive Game Development Program
A structured, five-stage sports-based cognitive game development program delivered twice weekly for 12 weeks (24 sessions total, 45 minutes per session), in addition to participants' regular sports training. The program followed a gradual cognitive load principle across five stages: (1) adaptation and basic cognitive infrastructure, (2) attention and reaction development, (3) decision-making and strategy, (4) concentration and multitasking performance, and (5) reinforcement and transfer to sport. Each session included five components: greeting and orientation (3 min), attention warm-up exercises (5 min), cognitive reaction games (15 min), strategy and decision-making games (15 min), and evaluation/closing (7 min). Sessions were delivered by a single PhD-level sport sciences researcher.
No Intervention: Control Group
Participants continued their regular sports training without any additional intervention during the 12-week period.

What is the study measuring?

Primary Outcome Measures

Outcome Measure
Measure Description
Time Frame
d2 Attention Test Total Net Error (TNE) Score
Time Frame: Baseline (pre-test) and after 12 weeks (post-test)
Selective attention performance measured by the Total Net Error (TNE) score of the d2 Attention Test, calculated as TNE = TN (total correctly marked targets) - E2 (commission errors). Higher scores indicate better selective attention performance.
Baseline (pre-test) and after 12 weeks (post-test)
Fz EEG Theta/Beta Ratio
Time Frame: Baseline (pre-test) and after 12 weeks (post-test)
Prefrontal EEG theta (4-8 Hz) to beta (13-21 Hz) power ratio, recorded from the Fz electrode using the Nexus 10 Mk II device during a 10-minute eyes-closed resting condition. Lower ratios indicate better attention regulation and prefrontal inhibitory capacity.
Baseline (pre-test) and after 12 weeks (post-test)

Collaborators and Investigators

This is where you will find people and organizations involved with this study.

Sponsor

Duzce University

Investigators

  • Principal Investigator: Yeşer Eroğlu Eskicioğlu, PhD, Düzce University

Study record dates

These dates track the progress of study record and summary results submissions to ClinicalTrials.gov. Study records and reported results are reviewed by the National Library of Medicine (NLM) to make sure they meet specific quality control standards before being posted on the public website.

Study Major Dates

Study Start (Actual)

February 1, 2026

Primary Completion (Actual)

April 30, 2026

Study Completion (Actual)

April 30, 2026

Study Registration Dates

First Submitted

August 3, 2026

First Submitted That Met QC Criteria

August 3, 2026

First Posted (Actual)

August 6, 2026

Study Record Updates

Last Update Posted (Actual)

August 6, 2026

Last Update Submitted That Met QC Criteria

August 3, 2026

Last Verified

August 1, 2026

More Information

Terms related to this study

Keywords

Other Study ID Numbers

  • E-78187535-050.04-426788

Plan for Individual participant data (IPD)

Plan to Share Individual Participant Data (IPD)?

YES

IPD Plan Description

Individual participant data (IPD) that underlie the results reported in this article, after de-identification, will be made available upon reasonable request to the corresponding author (yesereskicioglu@duzce.edu.tr). Data will be shared for purposes of independent verification and secondary analysis, beginning immediately following publication with no end date. Requests should include a methodologically sound proposal.

IPD Sharing Time Frame

Data will be made available beginning immediately following publication of the article, with no end date. There are no restrictions on the type of analyses for which data may be requested, provided the request includes a methodologically sound proposal and is directed to the corresponding author.

IPD Sharing Access Criteria

Data requests will be reviewed by the corresponding author. Access will be granted to qualified researchers who submit a methodologically sound proposal describing the intended use of the data. Requestors should contact the corresponding author (yesereskicioglu@duzce.edu.tr) with a written request outlining the research question and analysis plan. De-identified individual participant data will be shared via secure electronic transfer following approval of the request.

IPD Sharing Supporting Information Type

  • STUDY_PROTOCOL

Drug and device information, study documents

Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated drug product

No

Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated device product

No

This information was retrieved directly from the website clinicaltrials.gov without any changes. If you have any requests to change, remove or update your study details, please contact register@clinicaltrials.gov. As soon as a change is implemented on clinicaltrials.gov, this will be updated automatically on our website as well.

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