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Effects of a 12-Week Pickleball Training Program on Cognitive and Motor Skills in Adolescents With Mild Intellectual Disability (PBID-12)

perjantai 8. toukokuuta 2026 päivittänyt: Elif Top

From Focus to Function: Effects of a 12-Week Pickleball Training Program on Cognitive and Motor Outcomes in Individuals With Intellectual Disability

This study aims to investigate the effects of a 12-week pickleball training program on cognitive and motor outcomes in adolescents with mild intellectual disability. Pickleball is a low-impact racket sport that combines elements of tennis, badminton, and table tennis, and is considered suitable for promoting both physical and cognitive engagement.

A total of 32 students aged 14-18 years with mild intellectual disability, enrolled in a special education vocational school, will participate in the study. Participants will be assigned to either an intervention group (n = 16) or a control group (n = 16). The intervention group will receive structured pickleball training three times per week for 12 weeks, while the control group will continue their regular educational activities without additional intervention.

Cognitive outcomes will be assessed using standardized computerized tests, including sustained attention (Mackworth Clock Test), visual-spatial memory (Corsi Block Test), selective attention and reaction (Change Detection Test), and working memory (Digit Span Test). Motor outcomes will be evaluated using grip strength, balance assessments, and the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (BOT-2).

Assessments will be conducted at four time points: baseline (pre-test), mid-intervention (6th or 7th week), post-intervention (week 12), and follow-up (4-6 weeks after completion). The primary aim is to determine whether structured pickleball training improves cognitive performance and motor skills in adolescents with mild intellectual disability.

Findings from this study are expected to contribute to evidence-based physical activity interventions for individuals with intellectual disabilities and to expand the literature on the role of racket sports in cognitive and motor development.

Tutkimuksen yleiskatsaus

Tila

Aktiivinen, ei rekrytointi

Ehdot

Interventio / Hoito

Yksityiskohtainen kuvaus

This study will be conducted using a quasi-experimental pre-test-post-test control group design to examine the effects of a 12-week pickleball training program on physical and cognitive outcomes in individuals with mild intellectual disability. Participants will be recruited from a special education vocational school and will be aged between 14 and 18 years.

Participants will be assigned to either an experimental group or a control group. The experimental group will participate in a structured pickleball training program for 12 weeks, delivered three times per week. Each session will include two on-court practice sessions and one skill-based training session focusing on fundamental movement and sport-specific skills. Each training session will consist of a 5-minute warm-up, a 40-minute main activity phase, and a 5-minute cool-down period. The control group will continue their regular school-based physical education and daily academic routines without additional intervention.

Outcome assessments will be conducted at four time points: baseline (pre-test), mid-intervention (week 6-7), post-intervention (week 12), and follow-up (4-6 weeks after completion of the intervention). All assessments will be administered by the same research team using standardized protocols to ensure consistency.

Cognitive functions will be evaluated using computer-based tests from the Psychology Experiment Building Language (PEBL) battery. Sustained attention will be assessed using the Mackworth Clock Test, visuospatial working memory using the Corsi Block Test, selective attention and change detection ability using the Change Detection Test, and processing speed and short-term memory using the Digit Span Test.

Motor performance will be assessed using the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, Second Edition (BOT-2) short form. This standardized assessment evaluates fine motor precision, bilateral coordination, balance, agility, and strength-related motor skills.

In addition, handgrip strength will be measured using a handheld dynamometer, and lower extremity muscular endurance will be assessed using the 30-second sit-to-stand test. Balance performance will also be evaluated through the BOT-2 balance subtests.

All intervention sessions will be adapted to the functional abilities of participants to ensure safety and accessibility. Activities will be delivered by a qualified instructor supported by an assistant instructor, with individualized guidance provided as needed.

Data will be analyzed using appropriate statistical methods based on distribution assumptions. A mixed-design repeated measures ANOVA will be used to examine group-by-time interactions. The level of significance will be set at p < .05.

Opintotyyppi

Interventio

Ilmoittautuminen (Todellinen)

32

Vaihe

  • Ei sovellettavissa

Yhteystiedot ja paikat

Tässä osiossa on tutkimuksen suorittajien yhteystiedot ja tiedot siitä, missä tämä tutkimus suoritetaan.

Opiskelupaikat

  • Turkki (Türkiye)
    • Burdur
      • Burdur, Burdur, Turkki (Türkiye), 15200
        • Şehit Hakan Aktürk Special Education Vocational School

Osallistumiskriteerit

Tutkijat etsivät ihmisiä, jotka sopivat tiettyyn kuvaukseen, jota kutsutaan kelpoisuuskriteereiksi. Joitakin esimerkkejä näistä kriteereistä ovat henkilön yleinen terveydentila tai aiemmat hoidot.

Kelpoisuusvaatimukset

Opintokelpoiset iät

  • Lapsi
  • Aikuinen

Hyväksyy terveitä vapaaehtoisia

Ei

Kuvaus

Inclusion Criteria:

  • Having a diagnosis of mild intellectual disability
  • Being enrolled in a special education vocational high school
  • Being between 14 and 18 years of age
  • Having the ability to follow simple verbal instructions
  • Having no additional severe or secondary disability
  • Having no musculoskeletal condition preventing racket use
  • Providing voluntary assent and parental consent

Exclusion Criteria:

  • Refusal to participate in the study at any stage
  • Irregular school attendance during the intervention period
  • Failure to attend pickleball training sessions consistently
  • Presence of a chronic medical condition limiting participation
  • Participation in racket sports within the last 3 months
  • Withdrawal of parental consent during the study

Opintosuunnitelma

Tässä osiossa on tietoja tutkimussuunnitelmasta, mukaan lukien kuinka tutkimus on suunniteltu ja mitä tutkimuksella mitataan.

Miten tutkimus on suunniteltu?

Suunnittelun yksityiskohdat

  • Ensisijainen käyttötarkoitus: Muut
  • Jako: Ei satunnaistettu
  • Inventiomalli: Rinnakkaistehtävä
  • Naamiointi: Ei mitään (avoin tarra)

Aseet ja interventiot

Osallistujaryhmä / Arm
Interventio / Hoito
Kokeellinen: Pickleball Training Intervention Group

Participants assigned to this arm will participate in a 12-week structured pickleball training program. The intervention will be delivered three times per week under the supervision of a certified physical education specialist and an assistant instructor. Each session will last approximately 45 minutes and will include a standardized structure consisting of a 5-minute warm-up, 40 minutes of pickleball-specific training activities, and a 5-minute cool-down period.

The training content will include fundamental and advanced pickleball skills such as serving, forehand and backhand strokes, volley, dink, lob, smash, drop shot, and basic game strategies. Sessions will be conducted either in the school gymnasium or outdoor court depending on environmental conditions. The intervention aims to improve motor proficiency, balance, strength, and cognitive performance in adolescents with mild intellectual disability.
Käyttäytyminen: Pickleball Training Intervention Group

A structured 12-week pickleball training intervention will be implemented for adolescents with mild intellectual disability. The program will be delivered three times per week under the supervision of a qualified physical education specialist and an assistant instructor. Each session will last approximately 45 minutes and will follow a standardized structure consisting of a 5-minute warm-up, 40 minutes of skill-based pickleball training, and a 5-minute cool-down period.

The training content will include progressive instruction and practice of fundamental and advanced pickleball skills, including serving, forehand and backhand strokes, volley, dink, lob, smash, drop shot, and basic tactical gameplay. Sessions will be conducted in either an indoor gymnasium or outdoor court depending on weather conditions. The intervention is designed to improve motor proficiency, balance, muscular strength, and cognitive performance in participants with mild intellectual disability.
Active Comparator: Standard Special Education Curriculum
Participants assigned to this arm will continue their regular special education curriculum without participation in any structured physical activity or pickleball-based training program during the study period.
Muut: Standard Special Education Curriculum
Participants in the control group will continue their standard special education curriculum without participation in any structured physical activity or pickleball-based training throughout the study period.

Mitä tutkimuksessa mitataan?

Ensisijaiset tulostoimenpiteet

Tulosmittaus
Toimenpiteen kuvaus
Aikaikkuna
Sustained Attention
Aikaikkuna: Baseline (Week 0, pre-intervention), Mid-intervention (Week 6-7), Post-intervention (Week 12), Follow-up (4-6 weeks after intervention completion)
Sustained attention will be assessed using the Mackworth Clock Test. Higher scores indicate better sustained attention performance.
Baseline (Week 0, pre-intervention), Mid-intervention (Week 6-7), Post-intervention (Week 12), Follow-up (4-6 weeks after intervention completion)
Visuospatial Working Memory
Aikaikkuna: Baseline (Week 0, pre-intervention), Mid-intervention (Weeks 6-7), Post-intervention (Week 12), and Follow-up (4-6 weeks after intervention completion)
Visuospatial working memory will be assessed using the Block Test. Higher scores indicate better visuospatial working memory performance.
Baseline (Week 0, pre-intervention), Mid-intervention (Weeks 6-7), Post-intervention (Week 12), and Follow-up (4-6 weeks after intervention completion)
Selective Attention
Aikaikkuna: Baseline (Week 0, pre-intervention), Mid-intervention (Weeks 6-7), Post-intervention (Week 12), and Follow-up (4-6 weeks after intervention completion)
Selective attention will be assessed using the Change Detection Test. Higher scores indicate better selective attention performance.
Baseline (Week 0, pre-intervention), Mid-intervention (Weeks 6-7), Post-intervention (Week 12), and Follow-up (4-6 weeks after intervention completion)
Working Memory
Aikaikkuna: Baseline (Week 0, pre-intervention), Mid-intervention (Weeks 6-7), Post-intervention (Week 12), and Follow-up (4-6 weeks after intervention completion)
Working memory will be assessed using the Digit Span Test. Higher scores indicate better working memory performance.
Baseline (Week 0, pre-intervention), Mid-intervention (Weeks 6-7), Post-intervention (Week 12), and Follow-up (4-6 weeks after intervention completion)
Motor Proficiency
Aikaikkuna: Baseline (Week 0), Mid-intervention (Weeks 6-7), Post-intervention (Week 12), and Follow-up (4-6 weeks after intervention completion)
Motor proficiency will be assessed using the BOT-2 Short Form. Higher scores indicate better motor proficiency.
Baseline (Week 0), Mid-intervention (Weeks 6-7), Post-intervention (Week 12), and Follow-up (4-6 weeks after intervention completion)
Balance
Aikaikkuna: Baseline (Week 0), Mid-intervention (Weeks 6-7), Post-intervention (Week 12), and Follow-up (4-6 weeks after intervention completion)
Balance performance will be assessed using the balance subtests of the BOT-2. Higher scores indicate better balance performance.
Baseline (Week 0), Mid-intervention (Weeks 6-7), Post-intervention (Week 12), and Follow-up (4-6 weeks after intervention completion)
Hand Grip Strength
Aikaikkuna: Baseline (Week 0), Mid-intervention (Weeks 6-7), Post-intervention (Week 12), and Follow-up (4-6 weeks after intervention completion)
Hand grip strength will be measured using a hand dynamometer. Higher scores indicate greater grip strength.
Baseline (Week 0), Mid-intervention (Weeks 6-7), Post-intervention (Week 12), and Follow-up (4-6 weeks after intervention completion)
Lower Limb Strength
Aikaikkuna: Baseline (Week 0), Mid-intervention (Weeks 6-7), Post-intervention (Week 12), and Follow-up (4-6 weeks after intervention completion)
Lower limb strength will be assessed using the 30-second sit-to-stand test. Higher repetition scores indicate greater lower limb strength.
Baseline (Week 0), Mid-intervention (Weeks 6-7), Post-intervention (Week 12), and Follow-up (4-6 weeks after intervention completion)

Toissijaiset tulostoimenpiteet

Tulosmittaus
Toimenpiteen kuvaus
Aikaikkuna
Height
Aikaikkuna: Baseline (Week 0), Mid-intervention (Weeks 6-7), Post-intervention (Week 12), and Follow-up (4-6 weeks after intervention completion)
Height will be measured in centimeters to assess anthropometric characteristics.
Baseline (Week 0), Mid-intervention (Weeks 6-7), Post-intervention (Week 12), and Follow-up (4-6 weeks after intervention completion)
Body Weight
Aikaikkuna: Baseline (Week 0), Mid-intervention (Weeks 6-7), Post-intervention (Week 12), and Follow-up (4-6 weeks after intervention completion)
Body weight will be measured in kilograms to assess anthropometric characteristics.
Baseline (Week 0), Mid-intervention (Weeks 6-7), Post-intervention (Week 12), and Follow-up (4-6 weeks after intervention completion)
Body Mass Index (BMI)
Aikaikkuna: Baseline (Week 0), Mid-intervention (Weeks 6-7), Post-intervention (Week 12), and Follow-up (4-6 weeks after intervention completion)
Body mass index (BMI) will be calculated using height and body weight measurements and reported in kg/m² to assess anthropometric characteristics.
Baseline (Week 0), Mid-intervention (Weeks 6-7), Post-intervention (Week 12), and Follow-up (4-6 weeks after intervention completion)

Yhteistyökumppanit ja tutkijat

Täältä löydät tähän tutkimukseen osallistuvat ihmiset ja organisaatiot.

Sponsori

Elif Top

Yhteistyökumppanit

Burdur Mehmet Akif Ersoy University

Tutkijat

  • Päätutkija: Elif Top, Prof.Dr., Burdur Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, Faculty of Sport Sciences

Julkaisuja ja hyödyllisiä linkkejä

Tutkimusta koskevien tietojen syöttämisestä vastaava henkilö toimittaa nämä julkaisut vapaaehtoisesti. Nämä voivat koskea mitä tahansa tutkimukseen liittyvää.

Yleiset julkaisut

  • Bohannon, R. W. (2019). Hand-grip dynamometry predicts future outcomes in aging adults. Journal of Physical Therapy Science, 31(1), 21-26. https://doi.org/10.1589/jpts.31.21 Boucsein, W. (2012). Electrodermal activity (2nd ed.). Springer. Bruininks RH and Bruininks BD (2005) Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, Second Edition. PsycTESTS Dataset. https://doi.org/10.1037/t14991-000. Casals, M., Jimenez, S., Caparros, T., Gallego, R, M. & Baiget, E. (2023). Scoping review and quality of studies on the epidemiology of pickleball injuries. Apunts Sports Medicine, 58. Casper, Jonathan & Bocarro, Jason & Drake, Nicholas. (2023). Physical Activity Associated with Older Adult Pickleball Participation: A Pilot Study. Recreational Sports Journal. 47. Chien, T. C., & Chen, C. C. (2025). Effects of Pickleball intervention on the self-esteem and symptoms of patients with schizophrenia. Sports, 13(1), 21. Chiles, L. (2025). Pickleball for all: Adaptive sports program to address developmental disabilities (pp. 2-14). Texas Woman's University. Fishman, M., & Hirsch, L. J. (2019). Electroencephalography (EEG) is the non invasive measurement of the brain's electric fields. Current Biology, 29(1), 444-450.

Opintojen ennätyspäivät

Nämä päivämäärät seuraavat ClinicalTrials.gov-sivustolle lähetettyjen tutkimustietueiden ja yhteenvetojen edistymistä. National Library of Medicine (NLM) tarkistaa tutkimustiedot ja raportoidut tulokset varmistaakseen, että ne täyttävät tietyt laadunvalvontastandardit, ennen kuin ne julkaistaan ​​julkisella verkkosivustolla.

Opi tärkeimmät päivämäärät

Opiskelun aloitus (Todellinen)

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Ensisijainen valmistuminen (Arvioitu)

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Opintojen valmistuminen (Arvioitu)

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Ensimmäinen lähetetty

Tiistai 28. huhtikuuta 2026

Ensimmäinen toimitettu, joka täytti QC-kriteerit

Perjantai 8. toukokuuta 2026

Ensimmäinen Lähetetty (Todellinen)

Torstai 14. toukokuuta 2026

Tutkimustietojen päivitykset

Viimeisin päivitys julkaistu (Todellinen)

Torstai 14. toukokuuta 2026

Viimeisin lähetetty päivitys, joka täytti QC-kriteerit

Perjantai 8. toukokuuta 2026

Viimeksi vahvistettu

Keskiviikko 1. huhtikuuta 2026

Lisää tietoa

Tähän tutkimukseen liittyvät termit

Avainsanat

Muita asiaankuuluvia MeSH-ehtoja

Muut tutkimustunnusnumerot

  • GO2025/2429

Yksittäisten osallistujien tietojen suunnitelma (IPD)

Aiotko jakaa yksittäisten osallistujien tietoja (IPD)?

EI

IPD-suunnitelman kuvaus

Individual participant data will not be shared due to ethical considerations and the sensitive nature of the study population, which includes individuals with mild intellectual disability. Data confidentiality and participant privacy will be strictly maintained in accordance with institutional and ethical guidelines. Additionally, data use is limited to the approved scope of the present study.

Lääke- ja laitetiedot, tutkimusasiakirjat

Tutkii yhdysvaltalaista FDA sääntelemää lääkevalmistetta

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Tutkii yhdysvaltalaista FDA sääntelemää laitetuotetta

Ei

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