Effects of a 12-Week Pickleball Training Program on Cognitive and Motor Skills in Adolescents With Mild Intellectual Disability (PBID-12)

From Focus to Function: Effects of a 12-Week Pickleball Training Program on Cognitive and Motor Outcomes in Individuals With Intellectual Disability

This study aims to investigate the effects of a 12-week pickleball training program on cognitive and motor outcomes in adolescents with mild intellectual disability. Pickleball is a low-impact racket sport that combines elements of tennis, badminton, and table tennis, and is considered suitable for promoting both physical and cognitive engagement.

A total of 32 students aged 14-18 years with mild intellectual disability, enrolled in a special education vocational school, will participate in the study. Participants will be assigned to either an intervention group (n = 16) or a control group (n = 16). The intervention group will receive structured pickleball training three times per week for 12 weeks, while the control group will continue their regular educational activities without additional intervention.

Cognitive outcomes will be assessed using standardized computerized tests, including sustained attention (Mackworth Clock Test), visual-spatial memory (Corsi Block Test), selective attention and reaction (Change Detection Test), and working memory (Digit Span Test). Motor outcomes will be evaluated using grip strength, balance assessments, and the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (BOT-2).

Assessments will be conducted at four time points: baseline (pre-test), mid-intervention (6th or 7th week), post-intervention (week 12), and follow-up (4-6 weeks after completion). The primary aim is to determine whether structured pickleball training improves cognitive performance and motor skills in adolescents with mild intellectual disability.

Findings from this study are expected to contribute to evidence-based physical activity interventions for individuals with intellectual disabilities and to expand the literature on the role of racket sports in cognitive and motor development.

Study Overview

• Status: Active, not recruiting
• Conditions: Intellectual Disability, Mild
• Intervention / Treatment: Behavioral: Pickleball Training Intervention Group; Other: Standard Special Education Curriculum

Detailed Description

This study will be conducted using a quasi-experimental pre-test-post-test control group design to examine the effects of a 12-week pickleball training program on physical and cognitive outcomes in individuals with mild intellectual disability. Participants will be recruited from a special education vocational school and will be aged between 14 and 18 years.

Participants will be assigned to either an experimental group or a control group. The experimental group will participate in a structured pickleball training program for 12 weeks, delivered three times per week. Each session will include two on-court practice sessions and one skill-based training session focusing on fundamental movement and sport-specific skills. Each training session will consist of a 5-minute warm-up, a 40-minute main activity phase, and a 5-minute cool-down period. The control group will continue their regular school-based physical education and daily academic routines without additional intervention.

Outcome assessments will be conducted at four time points: baseline (pre-test), mid-intervention (week 6-7), post-intervention (week 12), and follow-up (4-6 weeks after completion of the intervention). All assessments will be administered by the same research team using standardized protocols to ensure consistency.

Cognitive functions will be evaluated using computer-based tests from the Psychology Experiment Building Language (PEBL) battery. Sustained attention will be assessed using the Mackworth Clock Test, visuospatial working memory using the Corsi Block Test, selective attention and change detection ability using the Change Detection Test, and processing speed and short-term memory using the Digit Span Test.

Motor performance will be assessed using the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, Second Edition (BOT-2) short form. This standardized assessment evaluates fine motor precision, bilateral coordination, balance, agility, and strength-related motor skills.

In addition, handgrip strength will be measured using a handheld dynamometer, and lower extremity muscular endurance will be assessed using the 30-second sit-to-stand test. Balance performance will also be evaluated through the BOT-2 balance subtests.

All intervention sessions will be adapted to the functional abilities of participants to ensure safety and accessibility. Activities will be delivered by a qualified instructor supported by an assistant instructor, with individualized guidance provided as needed.

Data will be analyzed using appropriate statistical methods based on distribution assumptions. A mixed-design repeated measures ANOVA will be used to examine group-by-time interactions. The level of significance will be set at p < .05.

• Study Type: Interventional
• Enrollment (Actual): 32
• Phase: Not Applicable

Contacts and Locations

Study Locations

• Turkey (Türkiye)
  • Burdur
    • Burdur, Burdur, Turkey (Türkiye), 15200
      • Şehit Hakan Aktürk Special Education Vocational School

Participation Criteria

Eligibility Criteria

• Ages Eligible for Study: Child; Adult
• Accepts Healthy Volunteers: No

Description

Inclusion Criteria:

• Having a diagnosis of mild intellectual disability
• Being enrolled in a special education vocational high school
• Being between 14 and 18 years of age
• Having the ability to follow simple verbal instructions
• Having no additional severe or secondary disability
• Having no musculoskeletal condition preventing racket use
• Providing voluntary assent and parental consent

Exclusion Criteria:

• Refusal to participate in the study at any stage
• Irregular school attendance during the intervention period
• Failure to attend pickleball training sessions consistently
• Presence of a chronic medical condition limiting participation
• Participation in racket sports within the last 3 months
• Withdrawal of parental consent during the study

Study Plan

How is the study designed?

Design Details

• Primary Purpose: Other
• Allocation: Non-Randomized
• Interventional Model: Parallel Assignment
• Masking: None (Open Label)

Number of Arms

2

Arms and Interventions

Participant Group / Arm	Intervention / Treatment
Experimental: Pickleball Training Intervention Group; Participants assigned to this arm will participate in a 12-week structured pickleball training program. The intervention will be delivered three times per week under the supervision of a certified physical education specialist and an assistant instructor. Each session will last approximately 45 minutes and will include a standardized structure consisting of a 5-minute warm-up, 40 minutes of pickleball-specific training activities, and a 5-minute cool-down period. The training content will include fundamental and advanced pickleball skills such as serving, forehand and backhand strokes, volley, dink, lob, smash, drop shot, and basic game strategies. Sessions will be conducted either in the school gymnasium or outdoor court depending on environmental conditions. The intervention aims to improve motor proficiency, balance, strength, and cognitive performance in adolescents with mild intellectual disability.	Behavioral: Pickleball Training Intervention Group; A structured 12-week pickleball training intervention will be implemented for adolescents with mild intellectual disability. The program will be delivered three times per week under the supervision of a qualified physical education specialist and an assistant instructor. Each session will last approximately 45 minutes and will follow a standardized structure consisting of a 5-minute warm-up, 40 minutes of skill-based pickleball training, and a 5-minute cool-down period. The training content will include progressive instruction and practice of fundamental and advanced pickleball skills, including serving, forehand and backhand strokes, volley, dink, lob, smash, drop shot, and basic tactical gameplay. Sessions will be conducted in either an indoor gymnasium or outdoor court depending on weather conditions. The intervention is designed to improve motor proficiency, balance, muscular strength, and cognitive performance in participants with mild intellectual disability.
Active Comparator: Standard Special Education Curriculum; Participants assigned to this arm will continue their regular special education curriculum without participation in any structured physical activity or pickleball-based training program during the study period.	Other: Standard Special Education Curriculum; Participants in the control group will continue their standard special education curriculum without participation in any structured physical activity or pickleball-based training throughout the study period.

What is the study measuring?

Primary Outcome Measures

Outcome Measure	Measure Description	Time Frame
Sustained Attention	Sustained attention will be assessed using the Mackworth Clock Test. Higher scores indicate better sustained attention performance.	Baseline (Week 0, pre-intervention), Mid-intervention (Week 6-7), Post-intervention (Week 12), Follow-up (4-6 weeks after intervention completion)
Visuospatial Working Memory	Visuospatial working memory will be assessed using the Block Test. Higher scores indicate better visuospatial working memory performance.	Baseline (Week 0, pre-intervention), Mid-intervention (Weeks 6-7), Post-intervention (Week 12), and Follow-up (4-6 weeks after intervention completion)
Selective Attention	Selective attention will be assessed using the Change Detection Test. Higher scores indicate better selective attention performance.	Baseline (Week 0, pre-intervention), Mid-intervention (Weeks 6-7), Post-intervention (Week 12), and Follow-up (4-6 weeks after intervention completion)
Working Memory	Working memory will be assessed using the Digit Span Test. Higher scores indicate better working memory performance.	Baseline (Week 0, pre-intervention), Mid-intervention (Weeks 6-7), Post-intervention (Week 12), and Follow-up (4-6 weeks after intervention completion)
Motor Proficiency	Motor proficiency will be assessed using the BOT-2 Short Form. Higher scores indicate better motor proficiency.	Baseline (Week 0), Mid-intervention (Weeks 6-7), Post-intervention (Week 12), and Follow-up (4-6 weeks after intervention completion)
Balance	Balance performance will be assessed using the balance subtests of the BOT-2. Higher scores indicate better balance performance.	Baseline (Week 0), Mid-intervention (Weeks 6-7), Post-intervention (Week 12), and Follow-up (4-6 weeks after intervention completion)
Hand Grip Strength	Hand grip strength will be measured using a hand dynamometer. Higher scores indicate greater grip strength.	Baseline (Week 0), Mid-intervention (Weeks 6-7), Post-intervention (Week 12), and Follow-up (4-6 weeks after intervention completion)
Lower Limb Strength	Lower limb strength will be assessed using the 30-second sit-to-stand test. Higher repetition scores indicate greater lower limb strength.	Baseline (Week 0), Mid-intervention (Weeks 6-7), Post-intervention (Week 12), and Follow-up (4-6 weeks after intervention completion)

Secondary Outcome Measures

Outcome Measure	Measure Description	Time Frame
Height	Height will be measured in centimeters to assess anthropometric characteristics.	Baseline (Week 0), Mid-intervention (Weeks 6-7), Post-intervention (Week 12), and Follow-up (4-6 weeks after intervention completion)
Body Weight	Body weight will be measured in kilograms to assess anthropometric characteristics.	Baseline (Week 0), Mid-intervention (Weeks 6-7), Post-intervention (Week 12), and Follow-up (4-6 weeks after intervention completion)
Body Mass Index (BMI)	Body mass index (BMI) will be calculated using height and body weight measurements and reported in kg/m² to assess anthropometric characteristics.	Baseline (Week 0), Mid-intervention (Weeks 6-7), Post-intervention (Week 12), and Follow-up (4-6 weeks after intervention completion)

Collaborators and Investigators

• Sponsor: Elif Top
• Collaborators: Burdur Mehmet Akif Ersoy University
• Investigators: Principal Investigator: Elif Top, Prof.Dr., Burdur Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, Faculty of Sport Sciences

Publications and helpful links

General Publications

• Bohannon, R. W. (2019). Hand-grip dynamometry predicts future outcomes in aging adults. Journal of Physical Therapy Science, 31(1), 21-26. https://doi.org/10.1589/jpts.31.21 Boucsein, W. (2012). Electrodermal activity (2nd ed.). Springer. Bruininks RH and Bruininks BD (2005) Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, Second Edition. PsycTESTS Dataset. https://doi.org/10.1037/t14991-000. Casals, M., Jimenez, S., Caparros, T., Gallego, R, M. & Baiget, E. (2023). Scoping review and quality of studies on the epidemiology of pickleball injuries. Apunts Sports Medicine, 58. Casper, Jonathan & Bocarro, Jason & Drake, Nicholas. (2023). Physical Activity Associated with Older Adult Pickleball Participation: A Pilot Study. Recreational Sports Journal. 47. Chien, T. C., & Chen, C. C. (2025). Effects of Pickleball intervention on the self-esteem and symptoms of patients with schizophrenia. Sports, 13(1), 21. Chiles, L. (2025). Pickleball for all: Adaptive sports program to address developmental disabilities (pp. 2-14). Texas Woman's University. Fishman, M., & Hirsch, L. J. (2019). Electroencephalography (EEG) is the non invasive measurement of the brain's electric fields. Current Biology, 29(1), 444-450.

Study record dates

Study Major Dates

• Study Start (Actual): February 9, 2026
• Primary Completion (Estimated): May 5, 2026
• Study Completion (Estimated): June 1, 2026

Study Registration Dates

• First Submitted: April 28, 2026
• First Submitted That Met QC Criteria: May 8, 2026
• First Posted (Actual): May 14, 2026

Study Record Updates

• Last Update Posted (Actual): May 14, 2026
• Last Update Submitted That Met QC Criteria: May 8, 2026
• Last Verified: April 1, 2026

More Information

Terms related to this study

• Keywords: Attention; Intellectual Disability; Cognitive Function; Motor Skills; Pickleball
• Additional Relevant MeSH Terms: Neurologic Manifestations; Nervous System Diseases; Mental Disorders; Neoplasms; Immune System Diseases; Neoplasms by Histologic Type; Neurobehavioral Manifestations; Lymphatic Diseases; Lymphoproliferative Disorders; Immunoproliferative Disorders; Lymphoma, Non-Hodgkin; Neurodevelopmental Disorders; Lymphoma; Pathological Conditions, Signs and Symptoms; Signs and Symptoms; Hemic and Lymphatic Diseases; Lymphoma, Follicular; Intellectual Disability
• Other Study ID Numbers: GO2025/2429

Plan for Individual participant data (IPD)

• Plan to Share Individual Participant Data (IPD)?: NO
• IPD Plan Description: Individual participant data will not be shared due to ethical considerations and the sensitive nature of the study population, which includes individuals with mild intellectual disability. Data confidentiality and participant privacy will be strictly maintained in accordance with institutional and ethical guidelines. Additionally, data use is limited to the approved scope of the present study.

Drug and device information, study documents

• Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated drug product: No
• Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated device product: No