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School-based Prevention of Teacher Violence Against Children: A Cluster-randomized Controlled Trial in Zambia (ICC-T Zambia)

14 augustus 2026 bijgewerkt door: Tobias Hecker, PhD

The United Nations Conventions on the Rights of the Child UN General Assembly, 1989), outlawed violence against children worldwide. Yet, 75% of all children worldwide - experience violence while growing up (Know Violence in Childhood, 2017). In Low- and Middle-Income countries prevalence rates at home and at school are higher (Hoeffler, 2017), with particularly high rates in Africa (Hecker et al., 2018; Nkuba, Hermenau, & Hecker, 2018; Hillis et al., 2016). Violence against children is related to negative mental health outcomes, lower quality in the child-adult relationship, lower cognitive functioning, and emotional and behavioural problems that begin in childhood and may persist through adolescence until adulthood (Berlin et al., 2009; Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016; Hecker et al., 2016; Kim & Cicchetti, 2010; Majer et al., 2010; Mills et al., 2011; Newbury et al., 2018; Wilson et al., 2009).

The present study focuses on violent discipline in schools, as (1) many children are subjected to violent discipline at school on a regular basis, and (2) teachers justify violent discipline since they want to encourage better academic performance and maintain children's discipline (Masath et al., 2022). As in other African countries (Hecker et al., 2018; Nkuba, Hermenau, & Hecker, 2018; Hillis et al., 2016), violent discipline is prevalent in Zambian schools, despite its prohibition in 2022 (End Corporal Punishment, 2025).

With this study we test the intervention Interaction Competencies with Children - for Teachers (ICC-T; Kirika & Hecker, 2022) to alleviate violence against children. ICC-T is a manualised 5,5 days training workshop focusing on the basic competencies in the work with children, including non-violent action alternatives. Previous cluster randomized controlled trail studies on ICC-T in Tanzania and Uganda showed that teachers who participated in ICC-T, used significantly less violent discipline measures against children compared to teachers in the control group. The transferability of the intervention to and the effectiveness in the Zambian context remains unclear. Evidence from our research may guide policy makers to implement further measures aiming at ending violence against children.

Studie Overzicht

Toestand

Werving

Conditie

Interventie / Behandeling

Gedetailleerde beschrijving

We will use a two-armed school-based CRCT including up to 30 primary schools in the Eastern Province of Zambia (Petauke and Lusangazi). The schools will be combined into 12 school clusters, 6 of the 12 school clusters will be randomly allocated to the intervention group, which will receive the ICC-T workshop, and the remaining schools will be allocated to the control group without any intervention. The study will include two data collection phases: (1) a baseline assessment before the intervention allocation, and (2) a follow-up assessment approximately six months after the allocation and delivery of the intervention.

The study will begin with the baseline assessment involving teachers and students in all schools (May-July 2026). Then the intervention period, follows during school holidays (August 2026). The intervention will involve the Interaction Competencies with Children - for Teachers (ICC-T). Teachers from the selected schools will be trained in ICC-T on 5,5 days consecutively. A local team of ICC-T trainers, trained extensively by our research team, will implement the interventions. Also, all training will take place within school premises. A follow-up assessment with teachers and students will be conducted at all schools approximately six months after the intervention.

Approximately 30-35 randomly selected students from the third year of formal schooling per school cluster will be invited to participate. In addition, 20 to 25 teachers per school cluster will be invited to participate in the present study. This results in a baseline sample size of approximately 400 students and approximately 300 teachers across the 12 school clusters.

Primary outcome measures are student-, and teacher-reported physical and emotional violence by the teachers in the past week. Secondary outcome measures include adult-child relationship quality, attitudes and norms towards violence, children's emotional and behavioral problems, quality of life, peer victimization, teachers' and children's stress level, teachers empathy change in perspective and self-efficacy.

Studietype

Ingrijpend

Inschrijving (Geschat)

700

Fase

  • Niet toepasbaar

Contacten en locaties

In dit gedeelte vindt u de contactgegevens van degenen die het onderzoek uitvoeren en informatie over waar dit onderzoek wordt uitgevoerd.

Studiecontact

Studie Contact Back-up

Studie Locaties

Deelname Criteria

Onderzoekers zoeken naar mensen die aan een bepaalde beschrijving voldoen, de zogenaamde geschiktheidscriteria. Enkele voorbeelden van deze criteria zijn iemands algemene gezondheidstoestand of eerdere behandelingen.

Geschiktheidscriteria

Leeftijden die in aanmerking komen voor studie

  • Kind
  • Volwassen
  • Oudere volwassene

Accepteert gezonde vrijwilligers

Ja

Beschrijving

Inclusion Criteria:

Schools:

  • public primary school (state owned schools, guided by Zambian education policy)
  • at least 35 students in the selected grade (3th school grade). o if it has less than 35 students in a grade, then it will be combined with nearby selected public primary school which must be within 15 km from the respective and an equal number from each school cluster will be selected to participate in the study.
  • at least 8 but no more than 50 employed teachers. o in case of less than 25 teachers, the selected school will form a school cluster together with another near-by (i.e., within 15 km) public primary school.

All participants:

• Written informed consent (if underaged by parents (written) & minors themselves (orally)

Students:

  • being enrolled in third school grade of public primary school.
  • being of age between 8 and 13 years.

Teachers:

  • being employed at an eligible school.
  • being open to participate in the intervention during school holidays.

Facilitators:

  • Ideally people holding a BA degree in psychology, social work, social sciences
  • Interest in the work with children
  • Being open minded and motivated
  • Balance of gender in the team of enumerators

Exclusion Criteria:

Schools:

• Schools participating in the sponsorship program of Save the Children will be excluded.

Students:

• severe mental disabilities that make it impossible to follow the interview questions.

Teachers:

• acute intoxication of alcohol, drugs or any other substance which make it impossible to follow the interview questions.

Studie plan

Dit gedeelte bevat details van het studieplan, inclusief hoe de studie is opgezet en wat de studie meet.

Hoe is de studie opgezet?

Ontwerpdetails

  • Primair doel: Preventie
  • Toewijzing: Gerandomiseerd
  • Interventioneel model: Parallelle opdracht
  • Masker: Enkel

Wapens en interventies

Deelnemersgroep / Arm
Interventie / Behandeling
Geen tussenkomst: Controle
geen tussenkomst
Experimenteel: Interaction Competencies with Children
ICC-T: 5,5 days of training for teachers. Core training components include teacher-student interaction, maltreatment prevention, effective discipline strategies, identifying and supporting burdened students and implementation of the training materials into the school setting.
Gedragsmatig: Interaction Competencies with Children
Interaction Competencies with Children - for Teachers (ICC-T) Core training components include teacher-student interaction, maltreatment prevention, effective discipline strategies, identifying and supporting burdened students and implementation of the training materials into the school setting.

Wat meet het onderzoek?

Primaire uitkomstmaten

Uitkomstmaat
Maatregel Beschrijving
Tijdsspanne
Reduction of teachers' use of emotional and physical violence
Tijdsspanne: The CTS will be used at T1 (baseline, prior to intervention) and T2 (follow-up, 6 months after intervention)
The Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS) will be used to assess teachers' use of emotional and physical violent discipline measures against children in the past week. Higher scores indicate higher levels of violence that is used by teachers. A stronger reduction of violence used by teachers of the intervention group compared to the control group is hypothesized.
The CTS will be used at T1 (baseline, prior to intervention) and T2 (follow-up, 6 months after intervention)
Reduction of children's exposure to emotional and physical violence by teachers
Tijdsspanne: The CTS will be used at T1 (baseline, prior to intervention) and T2 (follow-up, 6 months after intervention)
The Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS) supported by pictures will be used to assess children's self-reported experiences of emotional and physical violence by teachers at school in the past week. Higher scores indicate higher levels of violence that is used by teachers. A stronger reduction of exposure to violence in the children of teachers of the intervention group compared to the control group is hypothesized.
The CTS will be used at T1 (baseline, prior to intervention) and T2 (follow-up, 6 months after intervention)

Secundaire uitkomstmaten

Uitkomstmaat
Maatregel Beschrijving
Tijdsspanne
Change of teachers' attitudes towards emotional and physical violence
Tijdsspanne: The adapted version of CTS will be used at T1 (baseline, prior to intervention) and T2 (follow-up, 6 months after intervention)
Teachers' attitudes towards emotional and physical violence will be assessed with an adapted version of the Conflict Tactic Scale (CTS). Higher scores indicate higher levels of positive attitudes towards violence. A stronger reduction of favorable attitudes towards violence of teachers of the intervention group compared to the control group is hypothesized.
The adapted version of CTS will be used at T1 (baseline, prior to intervention) and T2 (follow-up, 6 months after intervention)
Reduction of teachers' perceived stress
Tijdsspanne: The Teacher Stress Inventory will be used at T1 (baseline, prior to intervention) and T2 (follow-up, 6 months after intervention)
The Teachers Stress Inventory will assess the perceived stress of teachers reported by teachers. Higher scores indicate higher levels of stress. A stronger decrease of teachers' perceived stress in the intervention group compared to the control group is hypothesized.
The Teacher Stress Inventory will be used at T1 (baseline, prior to intervention) and T2 (follow-up, 6 months after intervention)
Improvement of teachers' relationships with colleagues
Tijdsspanne: The Teachers' Relationship with Colleagues Scale will be used at T1 (baseline, prior to intervention) and T2 (follow-up, 6 months after intervention)
Teachers' Relationship with Colleagues with a Subscale of the Teacher Responsibility Scale will assess the relationship of teachers with colleagues reported by teachers. Higher scores indicate better relationships. A stronger increase of teachers' perceived relationship quality with colleagues in the intervention group compared to the control group is hypothesized.
The Teachers' Relationship with Colleagues Scale will be used at T1 (baseline, prior to intervention) and T2 (follow-up, 6 months after intervention)
Improvement of teachers' relationships with students
Tijdsspanne: The Student-Teacher Relationship Scale will be used at T1 (baseline, prior to intervention) and T2 (follow-up, 6 months after intervention)
The Student-Teacher Relationship Scale will assess the relationship of teachers with students reported by teachers. Higher scores indicate better relationships. A stronger increase of teachers' perceived relationship quality with students in the intervention group compared to the control group is hypothesized.
The Student-Teacher Relationship Scale will be used at T1 (baseline, prior to intervention) and T2 (follow-up, 6 months after intervention)
Increase of empathy and change in perspective by teachers
Tijdsspanne: The Empathy and Change in Perspective Scale will be used at T1 (baseline, prior to intervention) and T2 (follow-up, 6 months after intervention)
The Empathy and Change in Perspective Scale will assess the empathy and change in perspective of teachers reported by teachers. Higher scores indicate higher empathy and change in perspective. A stronger increase of teachers' empathy and change in perspective in the intervention group compared to the control group is hypothesized.
The Empathy and Change in Perspective Scale will be used at T1 (baseline, prior to intervention) and T2 (follow-up, 6 months after intervention)
Improvement of teachers' self-efficacy
Tijdsspanne: The Teachers' Sense of Efficacy Scale will be used at T1 (baseline, prior to intervention) and T2 (follow-up, 6 months after intervention)
The Teachers Sense of Efficacy Scale will assess the teachers' self-efficacy reported by teachers. Higher scores indicate higher levels of self-efficacy. A stronger increase of self-efficacy in the intervention group compared to the control group is hypothesized.
The Teachers' Sense of Efficacy Scale will be used at T1 (baseline, prior to intervention) and T2 (follow-up, 6 months after intervention)
Decrease of favorable normative beliefs about violence
Tijdsspanne: Beliefs About Punishment by Teachers will be used at T1 (baseline, prior to intervention) and T2 (follow-up, 6 months after intervention)
Beliefs About Punishment by Teachers measured by purpose-build items based on CTS reported by students and teachers. A stronger reduction of favorable normative beliefs about violence in the intervention group compared to the control group is hypothesized.
Beliefs About Punishment by Teachers will be used at T1 (baseline, prior to intervention) and T2 (follow-up, 6 months after intervention)
Improvement of children's mental health
Tijdsspanne: The PSC-Y will be used at T1 (baseline, prior to intervention) and T2 (follow-up, 6 months after intervention)
The adapted Pediatric Symptom Checklist - Youth Report (PSC-Y) supported by pictures will assess children's emotional and behavioral problems reported by children. Higher scores indicate higher levels of children's mental health problems. A stronger decrease of mental health problems in the children of teachers of the intervention group compared to the control group is hypothesized.
The PSC-Y will be used at T1 (baseline, prior to intervention) and T2 (follow-up, 6 months after intervention)
Increase of children's quality of life
Tijdsspanne: The KIDSCREEN-10 will be used at T1 (baseline, prior to intervention) and T2 (follow-up, 6 months after intervention)
The KIDSCREEN-10 will assess children's quality of life reported by children. Higher scores indicate higher levels of children's quality of life. A stronger increase of quality of life in the children of teachers of the intervention group compared to the control group is hypothesized.
The KIDSCREEN-10 will be used at T1 (baseline, prior to intervention) and T2 (follow-up, 6 months after intervention)
Reduction of children's perceived stress
Tijdsspanne: The Perceived Stress Scale for Kids will be used at T1 (baseline, prior to intervention) and T2 (follow-up, 6 months after intervention)
The Perceived Stress Scale for Kids will assess the perceived stress of children reported by children. Higher scores indicate higher levels of stress. A stronger decrease of children's perceived stress in the children of teachers of the intervention group compared to the control group is hypothesized.
The Perceived Stress Scale for Kids will be used at T1 (baseline, prior to intervention) and T2 (follow-up, 6 months after intervention)
Reduction of children's experienced peer victimization
Tijdsspanne: The Multidimensional Peer Victimization Scale for Kids will be used at T1 (baseline, prior to intervention) and T2 (follow-up, 6 months after intervention)
The Multidimensional Peer Victimization Scale will assess the experienced peer victimization of children reported by children. Higher scores indicate higher levels of peer victimization. A stronger decrease of children's experienced peer victimization in children of teachers of the intervention group compared to the control group is hypothesized.
The Multidimensional Peer Victimization Scale for Kids will be used at T1 (baseline, prior to intervention) and T2 (follow-up, 6 months after intervention)
Improvement of students' relationships with teachers
Tijdsspanne: The Teacher-Child Relationship Subscale of People In My Life will be used at T1 (baseline, prior to intervention) and T2 (follow-up, 6 months after intervention)
The Teacher-Child Relationship Subscale of People In My Life will assess the relationship of students with teachers reported by students. Higher scores indicate better relationships. A stronger increase of students perceived relationship quality with teachers in students of teachers of the intervention group compared to the control group is hypothesized.
The Teacher-Child Relationship Subscale of People In My Life will be used at T1 (baseline, prior to intervention) and T2 (follow-up, 6 months after intervention)

Medewerkers en onderzoekers

Hier vindt u mensen en organisaties die betrokken zijn bij dit onderzoek.

Sponsor

Tobias Hecker, PhD

Medewerkers

Save the Children
University of Zambia
Mkwawa University College of Education
Save the Children Zambia
Save the Children International
SEPA - Safeguarding & Ethical Programming & Advocacy (Save the Children)
CUBIC - Center for Utilizing Behavioral Insights for Children (Save the Children)

Publicaties en nuttige links

De persoon die verantwoordelijk is voor het invoeren van informatie over het onderzoek stelt deze publicaties vrijwillig ter beschikking. Dit kan gaan over alles wat met het onderzoek te maken heeft.

Algemene publicaties

Nuttige links

Studie record data

Deze datums volgen de voortgang van het onderzoeksdossier en de samenvatting van de ingediende resultaten bij ClinicalTrials.gov. Studieverslagen en gerapporteerde resultaten worden beoordeeld door de National Library of Medicine (NLM) om er zeker van te zijn dat ze voldoen aan specifieke kwaliteitscontrolenormen voordat ze op de openbare website worden geplaatst.

Bestudeer belangrijke data

Studie start (Werkelijk)

18 mei 2026

Primaire voltooiing (Geschat)

31 maart 2027

Studie voltooiing (Geschat)

31 december 2027

Studieregistratiedata

Eerst ingediend

14 augustus 2026

Eerst ingediend dat voldeed aan de QC-criteria

14 augustus 2026

Eerst geplaatst (Werkelijk)

19 augustus 2026

Updates van studierecords

Laatste update geplaatst (Werkelijk)

19 augustus 2026

Laatste update ingediend die voldeed aan QC-criteria

14 augustus 2026

Laatst geverifieerd

1 augustus 2026

Meer informatie

Termen gerelateerd aan deze studie

Trefwoorden

Andere studie-ID-nummers

  • ICC-T Zambia
  • 84010706 (Ander subsidie-/financieringsnummer: Save the Children International)

Plan Individuele Deelnemersgegevens (IPD)

Bent u van plan om gegevens van individuele deelnemers (IPD) te delen?

JA

Beschrijving IPD-plan

The ICC-T intervention is being tested in various other countries including Haiti, Ghana, Tanzania and Uganda. We will share anonymized data with project partners from the different countries for combined and/or comparative analyses. In addition, we will share anonymized data with other researchers working on prevention of violence against children in school settings for the purpose of conducting synthesizing analyses such as meta-analyses. Finally, the anonymized data collected in the study will be made publicly available in a data repository.

IPD-tijdsbestek voor delen

The anonymized data will be made publicly available after completion of the project in 2030.

IPD delen Ondersteunend informatietype

  • LEERPROTOCOOL
  • SAP
  • ICF
  • ANALYTIC_CODE

Informatie over medicijnen en apparaten, studiedocumenten

Bestudeert een door de Amerikaanse FDA gereguleerd geneesmiddel

Nee

Bestudeert een door de Amerikaanse FDA gereguleerd apparaatproduct

Nee

Deze informatie is zonder wijzigingen rechtstreeks van de website clinicaltrials.gov gehaald. Als u verzoeken heeft om uw onderzoeksgegevens te wijzigen, te verwijderen of bij te werken, neem dan contact op met register@clinicaltrials.gov. Zodra er een wijziging wordt doorgevoerd op clinicaltrials.gov, wordt deze ook automatisch bijgewerkt op onze website .

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