Effects of Reformer Pilates and Vestibular Exercise Programs on Balance and Gait in Children With Visual Impairment

Experimenteel: Pilates (Equipment-Based Pilates(Reformer)) Group

Participants in this arm received a supervised Reformer Pilates exercise program twice weekly for 6 weeks, for a total of 12 sessions

Gedragsmatig: Equipment-Based Pilates Exercise (Reformer)

Participants in this arm attended a supervised Reformer Pilates program, held twice a week for six weeks (12 sessions in total). Sessions were structured around the Reformer apparatus and followed a progressive format, with exercise difficulty gradually increasing as participants advanced through the program.

Experimenteel: Vestibular Exercise Group

Participants in this group receive a supervised vestibular balance exercise program for 6 weeks, consisting of 12 sessions (two sessions per week).

Gedragsmatig: Vestibular Exercise Program

Participants in this arm attended a supervised vestibular balance exercise program, held twice a week for six weeks (12 sessions in total). Exercises were performed under varying sensory conditions and progressed in difficulty as participants advanced through the program.

Geen tussenkomst: Control Group

Participants in this arm continued their usual daily activities and did not receive either of the study exercise programs during the study period.

Static Balance Performance: Center of Pressure Sway Area

Center of Pressure Sway Area: Static balance performance is assessed using the TekScan pressure platform. Center of pressure (COP) sway area is measured during standardized quiet standing and expressed in square centimeters (cm²) and Higher values indicate greater postural sway.

Static Balance Performance: Center of Pressure Path Length

Center of pressure path length is measured using the TekScan pressure platform during quiet standing, representing the total displacement distance of the center of pressure, expressed in centimeters (cm).

Static Balance Performance: Antero-posterior Center of Pressure Excursion

Anteroposterior center of pressure excursion is measured using the TekScan pressure platform during quiet standing, representing postural sway in the forward-backward direction, expressed in centimeters (cm).

Static Balance Performance: Mediolateral Center of Pressure Excursion

Medio-lateral center of pressure excursion is measured using the TekScan pressure platform during quiet standing, representing postural sway in the side-to-side direction, expressed in centimeters (cm).

Gait - Spatiotemporal:Walking Speed

Walking speed is assessed using the iSen Inertial Motion Capture System by STT Systems (iSEN IMUs )during the walking test and it is expressed in meters per second (m/s).

Gait - Spatiotemporal: Gait Cadence

Gait cadence is assessed using the iSen IMUs and it represents the average number of steps taken per minute during walking.

Gait - Spatiotemporal: Step Length and Stride Length During Gait

Step length and stride length are assessed using the iSEN IMU system during walking, expressed in meters (m). Step length represents the average distance between consecutive foot contacts of opposite feet and stride length represents the average distance between successive contacts of the same foot.

Pelvic Symmetry

Pelvic symmetry during gait is assessed using the iSEN IMUs and it is expressed as a percentage (%).

Gait: Stance and Swing Phase Duration

During Gait Stance and swing phase durations are assessed bilaterally using the iSEN IMUs. Stance phase represents the portion of the gait cycle during which the foot is in contact with the ground, and swing phase represents the portion during which the foot is not in contact with the ground. Values are recorded separately for the right and left limbs, expressed in seconds and as a percentage of the gait cycle.

Gait: Double Support Duration During Gait

Double support duration is assessed bilaterally using iSEN IMUs and represents the portion of the gait cycle during which both feet are concurrently in contact with the ground. Values are recorded separately for the right and left limbs, expressed as a percentage of the gait cycle.

Gait Kinematics: Hip Flexion-Extension Angle During Gait

Hip flexion and extension angles during the gait cycle are assessed bilaterally using the iSEN IMUs and expressed in degrees (º). Maximum hip flexion angle and minimum hip extension angle are recorded separately for the right and left limbs.

Gait Kinematics: Hip Flexion-Extension Range of Motion During Gait

Hip flexion-extension range of motion during the gait cycle is assessed bilaterally using the iSEN IMUs and expressed in degrees (º),it is recorded separately for the right and left limbs.

Gait Kinematics: Knee Flexion-Extension Angle During Gait

Knee flexion and extension angles during the gait cycle are assessed bilaterally using the iSEN IMUs and expressed in degrees (º). Maximum knee flexion angle and minimum knee extension angle are recorded separately for the right and left limbs.

Gait Kinematics: Knee Flexion-Extension Range of Motion During Gait

Knee flexion-extension range of motion during the gait cycle is assessed bilaterally using the iSEN IMUs and expressed in degrees (º), recorded separately for the right and left limbs.

Gait Kinematics: Ankle Dorsiflexion-Plantarflexion Angle During Gait

Ankle dorsiflexion and plantarflexion angles during the gait cycle are assessed bilaterally using the iSEN IMUs and expressed in degrees (º). Maximum dorsiflexion angle and minimum plantarflexion angle are recorded separately for the right and left limbs.

Gait Kinematics: Ankle Dorsiflexion-Plantarflexion Range of Motion During Gait

Ankle dorsiflexion-plantarflexion range of motion during the gait cycle is assessed bilaterally using the iSEN IMUs system and expressed in degrees (º), it is recorded separately for the right and left limbs.

Gait Kinematics: Pelvic Tilt Angle During Gait

Maximum posterior and anterior pelvic tilt angles during the gait cycle are assessed using the iSEN IMUs inertial measurement unit system and expressed in degrees (º), recorded separately as posterior tilt and anterior tilt values.

Gait Kinematics: Pelvic Tilt Range of Motion

Pelvic tilt range of motion during the gait cycle is assessed using the iSEN IMUs , representing the combined anterior (posterior tilt) and interior (anterior tilt) excursion, expressed in degrees (º).

Muscle Strength: Isometric Knee Extensor Muscle Strength

Knee Extension Isometric Strength Assessment: Participants will sit with knees at ~90° flexion, feet unsupported, distal posterior thigh positioned ~10 cm from the chair's front edge, arms on the armrests with hands gripping the handles, and thighs/pelvis stabilized with a strap. A dynamometer will be fixed to an apparatus mounted behind the chair using a rigid, non-stretch strap positioned ~2 cm proximal to the lateral malleolus and secured across the anterior tibial surface; participants will perform knee extension, applying maximal isometric force against the dynamometer through the strap. Three 5-second maximal contractions will be performed, with 1-minute rest between trials and verbal encouragement to ensure maximal effort; peak force will be recorded for each trial.

Muscle Strength: Isometric Knee Flexor Muscle Strength

Knee Flexion Isometric Strength Assessment: Participants will sit with feet unsupported, arms on the armrests with hands gripping the handles, and popliteal fossa positioned ~10 cm anterior to the chair's front edge, with thighs/pelvis stabilized using a strap. A dynamometer will be fixed to an apparatus mounted in front of the chair using a rigid, non-stretch strap positioned ~2 cm proximal to the lateral malleolus and secured across the posterior tibial surface; participants will flex the knee to 90° and apply maximal isometric force against the dynamometer through the strap. Three 5-second maximal contractions will be performed, with 1-minute rest between trials and verbal encouragement to ensure maximal effort; peak force will be recorded for each trial.

Trunk Muscle Endurance: Trunk Flexor Endurance

Trunk flexor endurance is assessed using a 1-minute curl-up test. Participants perform repeated curl-ups from a supine position with knees flexed at 90°, sliding their hands forward toward the knees and returning to the starting position with proper form. The number of correctly completed repetitions within 1 minute is recorded.

Trunk Extensor Endurance

Description: Trunk extensor endurance is assessed using a modified Sørensen test performed on a Roman chair, with the pelvis and lower extremities secured. Participants cross their arms over the chest and maintain the trunk horizontally aligned with the lower extremities, knees extended, for as long as possible. The test is terminated when the participant can no longer sustain the position, and the duration is recorded in seconds.