Glycaemic Response of Arabic Bread

Glycaemic Response to Arabic Bread Formulated With Alternative Flour Blends: A Comparison With Arabic Wheat Bread

Bread remains one of the most widely consumed staple foods worldwide, with wheat flour serving as its traditional foundation. However, the widespread dependence on refined wheat-based bread has paralleled the rising prevalence of type 2 diabetes (T2D), partly owing to its high glycaemic index (GI), which results in rapid increases in blood glucose levels. Enhancing the nutritional quality of bread, therefore, represents an important target for dietary intervention.

Developing alternative flour blends for bread production presents a potential strategy for improving glycaemic control and supporting glucose homeostasis. Accordingly, this clinical trial aims to determine whether the partial replacement of wheat flour with legume flours, including chickpea, pea, and lentil, in Arabic bread formulations can lower glycaemic responses compared with traditional Arabic wheat bread.

Study Overview

• Status: Not yet recruiting
• Conditions: Glycaemic Response in Overweight and/or Obesity
• Intervention / Treatment: Other: Control Bread; Other: Chickpea-Enriched Arabic Bread; Other: Pea-Enriched Arabic Bread; Other: Lentil-Enriched Arabic Bread

Detailed Description

This study will be a crossover trial. Participants living with overweight and obesity will be recruited and fully informed about the study before giving informed consent. Eligible participants will attend the University of Nottingham on 4 separate visits following an overnight fast of at least 10 hours. On each visit, participants will consume one of three Arabic bread formulations or a control, with a one-week washout between visits. Each bread sample will provide an equivalent of 50 g of available carbohydrate:

1. Control bread (100% wheat flour)
2. Arabic bread containing 30% chickpea flour, with 70% wheat flour (primary comparison with control)
3. Arabic bread containing 30% pea flour, with 70% wheat flour(optional secondary comparison with control)
4. Arabic bread containing 30% lentil flour, with 70% wheat flour (optional secondary comparison with control)

The primary focus of this study is the comparison between the control bread and the chickpea-enriched bread, as chickpea flour represents the main intervention. The pea-enriched bread and lentil-enriched variants are included as optional secondary comparisons to provide additional insights into the broader effect of legume flour substitution on glycaemic response.

Study Visits:

The procedures for each visit are summarised below:

1. Pre-visit fast: Participants will fast for at least 10 hours before each visit.
2. Blood glucose sampling: Capillary blood glucose will be measured via finger prick at baseline and at regular intervals over 120 minutes following consumption (0, 15, 30, 60, 90, and 120 min) of the bread sample to assess the postprandial glycaemic response.
3. Appetite assessment: Participants will complete visual analogue scale questionnaires at baseline and at set intervals throughout each visit to assess subjective appetite responses.
4. Sensory evaluation: Participants will be asked to rate the sensory acceptability of each bread sample using a 9-point hedonic scale immediately after consumption.
5. Dietary intake: Participants will complete 24-hour food diaries in each visit.

Gastrointestinal symptoms will also be monitored via a brief self-reported questionnaire at baseline and post-consumption.

• Study Type: Interventional
• Enrollment (Estimated): 14
• Phase: Not Applicable

Contacts and Locations

• Study Contact: Name: Wejdan Shamakhay, Phd Student; Phone Number: +44; Email: alyws7@nottingham.ac.uk
• Study Contact Backup: Name: Simon Welham, Associate Professor; Email: simon.welham@nottingham.ac.uk

Study Locations

• United Kingdom
  • Nottingham, United Kingdom
    • School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, United Kingdom
    • Contact: Simon Welham, Associate Professor; Phone Number: 0115 951 6129; Email: simon.welham@nottingham.ac.uk
    • Contact: Wejdan Shamakhay, PhD Student; Email: alyws7@nottingham.ac.uk
    • Principal Investigator: Wejdan Shamakhay, PhD student
    • Principal Investigator: Simon Welham, Associate Professor

Participation Criteria

Eligibility Criteria

• Ages Eligible for Study: Adult; Older Adult
• Accepts Healthy Volunteers: Yes

Description

Inclusion Criteria:

• Participants will be adults living with overweight or obesity (Body Mass Index [BMI] > 25 kg/m²).
• Participants will be of any gender.
• Participants will be aged 18 to 65.
• Participants will be from any sociodemographic background.
• Participants will be able to provide informed consent.
• Participants will be able to understand spoken and written English and be able to record their responses to questionnaires.

Exclusion Criteria:

• Those with food allergies or intolerances to any of the study ingredients, including wheat, chickpeas, lentils, or peas, will not be eligible.
• Individuals with a known diagnosis of metabolic or chronic health conditions, such as diabetes, insulin resistance, hypertension, or phenylketonuria, will be excluded due to the potential impact on glycaemic control and study outcomes.
• Participants with a fasting blood glucose level of above 7.0 mmol/L.
• Use of medications that influence blood glucose levels (e.g., corticosteroids, antipsychotics, antiviral protease inhibitors) or substances that interfere with digestion and absorption (such as laxatives or fibre supplements) will result in exclusion.
• Pregnant or breastfeeding individuals will not be included due to the physiological changes that may influence study outcomes.
• Participants with implanted medical devices, including pacemakers, artificial organs, defibrillators, or joint replacements, will be excluded for safety considerations.
• Anyone who has undergone major surgery or hospitalisation within the last 5 months will be deemed ineligible.
• Individuals who have participated in another research study involving invasive procedures within the last 3 months will be excluded.

Study Plan

How is the study designed?

Design Details

• Primary Purpose: Basic Science
• Allocation: Randomized
• Interventional Model: Crossover Assignment
• Masking: Single

Number of Arms

2

Arms and Interventions

Participant Group / Arm	Intervention / Treatment
Experimental: Control bread followed by chickpea bread; Participants will consume control Arabic bread followed by chickpea-enriched Arabic bread after the one week's washout period. Participants who complete the primary crossover phase may optionally continue to pea and/or lentil bread interventions.	Other: Control Bread; Arabic bread prepared with 100% wheat flour, providing an equivalent of 50g of available carbohydrate.; Other: Chickpea-Enriched Arabic Bread; Arabic bread prepared with 30% chickpea flour and 70% wheat flour, providing an equivalent of 50g available carbohydrate. (This is the primary experimental comparison); Other: Pea-Enriched Arabic Bread; Arabic bread prepared with 30% pea flour and 70% wheat flour, providing an equivalent of 50g available carbohydrate. (Optional secondary comparison); Other: Lentil-Enriched Arabic Bread; Arabic bread prepared with 30% lentil flour and 70% wheat flour, providing an equivalent of 50g available carbohydrate. (Optional secondary comparison)
Experimental: Chickpea bread followed by control bread; Participants will consume chickpea-enriched Arabic bread followed by control Arabic bread after one week the washout period. Participants who complete the primary crossover phase may optionally continue to additional exploratory bread interventions, including pea bread and/or lentil bread.	Other: Control Bread; Arabic bread prepared with 100% wheat flour, providing an equivalent of 50g of available carbohydrate.; Other: Chickpea-Enriched Arabic Bread; Arabic bread prepared with 30% chickpea flour and 70% wheat flour, providing an equivalent of 50g available carbohydrate. (This is the primary experimental comparison); Other: Pea-Enriched Arabic Bread; Arabic bread prepared with 30% pea flour and 70% wheat flour, providing an equivalent of 50g available carbohydrate. (Optional secondary comparison); Other: Lentil-Enriched Arabic Bread; Arabic bread prepared with 30% lentil flour and 70% wheat flour, providing an equivalent of 50g available carbohydrate. (Optional secondary comparison)

What is the study measuring?

Primary Outcome Measures

Outcome Measure	Measure Description	Time Frame
Postprandial Blood Glucose Response	Differences in the iAUC for capillary blood glucose will be compared between bread formulations.	120 minutes

Secondary Outcome Measures

Outcome Measure	Measure Description	Time Frame
24 hour food intake	Total energy intake, macronutrient intake until midnight after product consumption.	24 hours
Peak Postprandial Capillary Blood Glucose	Differences in the peak capillary blood glucose value after consuming each bread formulation.	120 minutes
Appetite Response	Appetite sensations including hunger, fullness, and desire to eat assessed using visual analogue scales (VAS) at baseline and at regular intervals throughout each visit.	120 minutes
Sensory Acceptability	Overall liking and sensory acceptability of each Arabic bread sample were assessed using the 9-point hedonic scale immediately after consumption.	Immediately after consumption

Other Outcome Measures

Outcome Measure	Measure Description	Time Frame
Gastrointestinal Symptoms	Participants will complete a brief self-reported gastrointestinal symptom questionnaire pre- and post-consumption to assess symptoms such as bloating, abdominal discomfort, and flatulence.	At baseline (0 minute) and 120 minutes post-consumption

Collaborators and Investigators

• Sponsor: University of Nottingham

Study record dates

Study Major Dates

• Study Start (Estimated): June 1, 2026
• Primary Completion (Estimated): March 31, 2027
• Study Completion (Estimated): March 31, 2027

Study Registration Dates

• First Submitted: June 10, 2026
• First Submitted That Met QC Criteria: June 10, 2026
• First Posted (Actual): June 17, 2026

Study Record Updates

• Last Update Posted (Actual): June 17, 2026
• Last Update Submitted That Met QC Criteria: June 10, 2026
• Last Verified: May 1, 2026

More Information

Terms related to this study

• Keywords: Obesity; Overweight; Satiety; Appetite; Postprandial Glucose; Glycaemic Response; Arabic Bread; Legume Flour; Wheat Flour
• Additional Relevant MeSH Terms: Nutrition Disorders; Overnutrition; Body Weight; Pathological Conditions, Signs and Symptoms; Nutritional and Metabolic Diseases; Signs and Symptoms; Overweight; Obesity
• Other Study ID Numbers: FMHS 238-0925

Plan for Individual participant data (IPD)

• Plan to Share Individual Participant Data (IPD)?: NO

Drug and device information, study documents

• Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated drug product: No
• Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated device product: No