The Bay Area Verbal Learning Test (BAVLT): Normative Data and the Effects of Repeated Testing, Simulated Malingering, and Traumatic Brain Injury

David L Woods, John M Wyma, Timothy J Herron, E William Yund, David L Woods, John M Wyma, Timothy J Herron, E William Yund

Abstract

Verbal learning tests (VLTs) are widely used to evaluate memory deficits in neuropsychiatric and developmental disorders. However, their validity has been called into question by studies showing significant differences in VLT scores obtained by different examiners. Here we describe the computerized Bay Area Verbal Learning Test (BAVLT), which minimizes inter-examiner differences by incorporating digital list presentation and automated scoring. In the 10-min BAVLT, a 12-word list is presented on three acquisition trials, followed by a distractor list, immediate recall of the first list, and, after a 30-min delay, delayed recall and recognition. In Experiment 1, we analyzed the performance of 195 participants ranging in age from 18 to 82 years. Acquisition trials showed strong primacy and recency effects, with scores improving over repetitions, particularly for mid-list words. Inter-word intervals (IWIs) increased with successive words recalled. Omnibus scores (summed over all trials except recognition) were influenced by age, education, and sex (women outperformed men). In Experiment 2, we examined BAVLT test-retest reliability in 29 participants tested with different word lists at weekly intervals. High intraclass correlation coefficients were seen for omnibus and acquisition scores, IWIs, and a categorization index reflecting semantic reorganization. Experiment 3 examined the performance of Experiment 2 participants when feigning symptoms of traumatic brain injury. Although 37% of simulated malingerers showed abnormal (p < 0.05) omnibus z-scores, z-score cutoffs were ineffective in discriminating abnormal malingerers from control participants with abnormal scores. In contrast, four malingering indices (recognition scores, primacy/recency effects, learning rate across acquisition trials, and IWIs) discriminated the two groups with 80% sensitivity and 80% specificity. Experiment 4 examined the performance of a small group of patients with mild or severe TBI. Overall, both patient groups performed within the normal range, although significant performance deficits were seen in some patients. The BAVLT improves the speed and replicability of verbal learning assessments while providing comprehensive measures of retrieval timing, semantic organization, and primacy/recency effects that clarify the nature of performance.

Keywords: aging; dementia; education; head injury; malingering; memory; reaction time; sex.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
The scoring display. The display as it appeared to the examiner during the immediate free recall of List A and after the presentation of List B. Only List A tokens were displayed during the first three presentations of list A.
Figure 2
Figure 2
Omnibus scores as a function of age. Omnibus scores were the sum of correctly reported words during the presentation of four acquisition trials (including list B), and two recall trials (IR and DR). Data are shown for normative control subjects in Experiment 1 (blue diamonds), Experiment 2a (red squares), Experiment 3 (Malingering, green triangles), and Experiment 4 with separate data for patients with mild (red circles) and severe (blue and white) TBI.
Figure 3
Figure 3
Mean correct-word scores on successive trials. E1, Experiment 1; E2a, Experiment 2a, E3, Experiment 3. Error bars show standard errors. Experiment 4 data are shown separately for patients with mild and severe TBI (mTBI and sTBI).
Figure 4
Figure 4
Top: Omnibus z-scores as a function of age. Bottom: Acquisition vs. recall-ratio z-scores. Omnibus and acquisition scores were transformed into z-scores after factoring out the contributions of age, sex, and education; recall-ratio z-scores factored out age and education. See Figure 2 for details. The dashed red lines show p < 0.05 abnormality thresholds for Experiment 1.
Figure 5
Figure 5
Mean inter-word intervals (IWIs) for words 2 through 6 in the different experiments. The data were averaged over trials of different types and output lengths. See Figure 2 for abbreviations.
Figure 6
Figure 6
Top: Serial position functions in Experiment 1 shown separately for learning (A1, A2, and A3) and recall trials (IR and DR). Bottom: Serial position functions averaged over learning and recall trials for all experiments. Error bars show standard errors. See Figure 2 for abbreviations.
Figure 7
Figure 7
Test-retest reliability. Omnibus scores of the participants in Experiment 2a (abscissa) vs. Experiment 2b or 2c (ordinate).

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    1. Woods D. L., Wyma J. M., Yund E. W., Herron T. J. (2015a). The effects of repeated testing, simulated malingering, and traumatic brain injury on visual choice reaction time. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 9:595. 10.3389/fnhum.2015.00595
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