Maternal Stress during Pregnancy, ADHD Symptomatology in Children and Genotype: Gene-Environment Interaction

Abstract

Objective: Case control studies suggest a relationship between maternal stress during pregnancy and childhood ADHD. However, maternal smoking, parenting style and parental psychiatric disorder are possible confounding factors. Our objective was to control for these factors by using an intra-familial design, and investigate gene-environment interactions.

Methods: One hundred forty two children, ages 6 to 12, (71 with ADHD, and their 71 non-ADHD siblings) participated in the intra-familial study design. A larger sample of ADHD children (N=305) was genotyped for DAT1 and DRD4 to examine gene-environment interactions. Symptom severity was evaluated using the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) and the Conners' Global Index for Parents (CGI-P). The Kinney Medical and Gynecological Questionnaire was used to report stressful events during pregnancies.

Results: LOGISTIC REGRESSION INDICATED THAT MOTHERS WERE MORE LIKELY TO HAVE EXPERIENCED HIGH STRESS DURING PREGNANCY OF THEIR ADHD CHILD COMPARED TO THAT OF THE UNAFFECTED SIBLING (OR: 6.3, p=.01). In the larger sample, DRD4 7/7 genotype was associated with increased symptom severity in the high stress pregnancy (p=.01).

Conclusions: Maternal stress during pregnancy was associated with the development of ADHD symptomatology after controlling for family history of ADHD and other environmental factors. This association could partly be mediated through the DRD4 genotype.

Keywords: ADHD; DRD4; pregnancy; prenatal stress.

Figures

Figure 1

Symptom severity in children as measured by the CBCL, presented according to the level of prenatal stress and DRD4 genotype. Data analysis showed a significant GxE interaction (p=.01), with children homozygous for the 7-repeat allele being particularly sensitive to high prenatal stress exposure compared to low stress exposure. Mean CBCL total T-score