Social anxiety disorder in adolescence: How developmental cognitive neuroscience findings may shape understanding and interventions for psychopathology

Simone P W Haller, Kathrin Cohen Kadosh, Gaia Scerif, Jennifer Y F Lau, Simone P W Haller, Kathrin Cohen Kadosh, Gaia Scerif, Jennifer Y F Lau

Abstract

Social anxiety disorder represents a debilitating condition that has large adverse effects on the quality of social connections, educational achievement and wellbeing. Age-of-onset data suggests that early adolescence is a developmentally sensitive juncture for the onset of social anxiety. In this review, we highlight the potential of using a developmental cognitive neuroscience approach to understand (i) why there are normative increases in social worries in adolescence and (ii) how adolescence-associated changes may 'bring out' neuro-cognitive risk factors for social anxiety in a subset of individuals during this developmental period. We also speculate on how changes that occur in learning and plasticity may allow for optimal acquisition of more adaptive neurocognitive strategies through external interventions. Hence, for the minority of individuals who require external interventions to target their social fears, this enhanced flexibility could result in more powerful and longer-lasting therapeutic effects. We will review two novel interventions that target information-processing biases and their neural substrates via cognitive training and visual feedback of neural activity measured through functional magnetic resonance imaging.

Keywords: Adolescence; Cognitive bias; Neurocognitive development; SAD; Social anxiety; fMRI.

Copyright © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.

Figures

Fig. 1
Fig. 1
Adolescence as a period of vulnerability for SAD. Red shaded region highlights risk for onset or amplification of neurocognitive risk factors through interplay of adolescence-associated changes. As socio-affective networks are thought to develop across adolescence with complex linear and quadratic changes we suggest greater plasticity to socio-affective stimuli across the teenage years (relative to adults). (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of the article.)

References

    1. Alfano C.A., Beidel D.C., Turner S.M. Cognitive correlates of social phobia among children and adolescents. J. Abnorm. Child Psychol. 2006;34:189–201.
    1. Avital A., Richter-Levin G. Exposure to juvenile stress exacerbates the behavioural consequences of exposure to stress in the adult rat. Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol. 2005;8:163–173.
    1. Bauman M.D., Lavenex P., Mason W.A., Capitanio J.P., Amaral D.G. The development of mother-infant interactions after neonatal amygdala lesions in rhesus monkeys. J. Neurosci. 2004;24(3):711–721.
    1. Bauman M.D., Toscano J.E., Mason W.A., Lavenex P., Amaral D.G. The expression of social dominance following neonatal lesions of the amygdala or hippocampus in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) Behav. Neurosci. 2006;120:749–760.
    1. Bar-Haim Y., Fox N.A., Benson B., Guyer A.E., Williams A., Nelson E.E., Ernst M. Neural correlates of reward processing in adolescents with a history of inhibited temperament. Psychol Sci. 2009;20(8):1009–1018.
    1. Bar-Haim Y., Lamy D., Pergamin L., Bakermans-Kranenburg M.J., van IJzendoorn M.H. Threat-related attentional bias in anxious and nonanxious individuals: a meta-analytic study. Psychol. Bull. 2007;133(1):1–24.
    1. Bar-Haim Y., Morag I., Glickman S. Training anxious children to disengage attention from threat: a randomized controlled trial. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry Allied Discip. 2011;52(8):861–869.
    1. Battaglia M., Zanoni A., Taddei M., Giorda R., Bertoletti E., Lampis V., Tettamanti M. Cerebral responses to emotional expressions and the development of social anxiety disorder: a preliminary longitudinal study. Depress. Anxiety. 2012;29(1):54–61.
    1. Blakemore S.-J. The social brain in adolescence. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2008;9(4):267–277.
    1. Blakemore S.J. Imaging brain development: the adolescent brain. Neuroimage. 2012;61(2):397–406.
    1. Blakemore S.-J., Mills K.L. Is adolescence a sensitive period for sociocultural processing? Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2014;65:187–207.
    1. Blakemore S.-J., den Ouden H., Choudhury S., Frith C. Adolescent development of the neural circuitry for thinking about intentions. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci. 2007;2(2):130–139.
    1. Bögels S.M., Zigterman D. Dysfunctional cognitions in children with social phobia, separation anxiety disorder, and generalized anxiety disorder. J. Abnorm. Child Psychol. 2000;28:205–211.
    1. Braams B.R., Peters S., Peper J.S., Güroğlu B., Crone E.A. Gambling for self, friends, and antagonists: differential contributions of affective and social brain regions on adolescent reward processing. Neuroimage. 2014;100:281–289.
    1. Buwalda B., Geerdink M., Vidal J., Koolhaas J.M. Social behavior and social stress in adolescence: a focus on animal models. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2011;35(8):1713–1721.
    1. Burnett S., Bird G., Moll J., Frith C., Blakemore S.-J. Development during adolescence of the neural processing of social emotion. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 2009;21(9):1736–1750.
    1. Butler R. Age trends in the use of social and temporal comparison for self-evaluation: examination of a novel developmental hypothesis. Child Dev. 1998;69(4):1054–1073.
    1. Cartwright-Hatton S., Hodges L., Porter J. Social anxiety in childhood: the relationship with self and observer rated social skills. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry. 2003;44(5):737–742.
    1. Cartwright-Hatton S., Roberts C., Chitsabesan P., Fothergill C., Harrington R. Systematic review of the efficacy of cognitive behaviour therapies for childhood and adolescent anxiety disorders. Br. J. Clin. Psychol. 2004;43:421–436.
    1. Cartwright-Hatton S., Tschernitz N., Gomersall H. Social anxiety in children: social skills deficit, or cognitive distortion? Behav. Res. Ther. 2005;43(1):131–141.
    1. Chein J., Albert D., Brien L.O., Uckert K., Steinberg L. Peers increase adolescent risk taking by enhancing activity in the brain's reward circuitry. Dev. Sci. 2012;14(2):1–16.
    1. Clark D.M., Wells A. A cognitive model of social phobia. In: Heimberg R.G., Liebowitz M.R., Hope D., editors. Social Phobia – Diagnosis, Assessment, and Treatment. Guilford; New York: 1995. pp. 69–93.
    1. Cohen J.R., Asarnow R.F., Sabb F.W., Bilder R.M., Bookheimer S.Y., Knowlton B.J., Poldrack R.A. A unique adolescent response to reward prediction errors. Nat. Neurosci. 2010;13(6):669–671.
    1. Cohen Kadosh K., Linden D.E.J., Lau J.Y. Plasticity during childhood and adolescence: innovative approaches to investigating neurocognitive development. Dev. Sci. 2013;16(4):574–583.
    1. Coleman J.C. Routledge & Kegan Paul; London: 1974. Relationships in Adolescence.
    1. Cowart M.J.W., Ollendick T.H. Attention training in socially anxious children: a multiple baseline design analysis. J. Anxiety Disord. 2011;25:972–977.
    1. Creswell C., Murray L., Cooper P. Interpretation and expectation in childhood anxiety disorders: age effects and social specificity. J. Abnorm. Child Psychol. 2013;42(3):453–465.
    1. Crone E.A., Dahl R.E. Understanding adolescence as a period of social-affective engagement and goal flexibility. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2012;13(9):636–650.
    1. Crone E.A., van der Molen M.W. Development of decision making in school-aged children and adolescents: evidence from heart rate and skin conductance analysis. Child Dev. 2007;78:1288–1301.
    1. Crone E.A., Zanolie K., van Leijenhorst L., Westenberg P., Rombouts S.A. Neural mechanisms supporting flexible performance adjustment during development. Cogn. Affect. Behav. Neurosci. 2008;8:165–177.
    1. deCharms R.C. Reading and controlling human brain activation using real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging. Trends Cogn. Sci. 2007;11:473–481.
    1. deCharms R.C., Maeda F., Glover G.H., Ludlow D., Pauly J.M., Soneji D., Gabrieli J.D.E., Mackey S.C. Control over brain activation and pain learned by using real-time functional MRI. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 2005;102:18626–18631.
    1. Dumontheil I., Apperly I.A., Blakemore S.-J. Online usage of theory of mind continues to develop in late adolescence. Dev. Sci. 2010;13(2):331–338.
    1. Dreyfuss M., Caudle K., Drysdale A.T., Johnston N.E., Cohen A.O., Somerville L.H., Casey B.J. Teens impulsively react rather than retreat from threat. Dev. Neurosci. 2014;36(3–4):220–227.
    1. Eldar S., Apter A. Attention bias modification treatment for pediatric anxiety disorders: a randomized controlled trial. Am. J. Psychiatry. 2012;169(2):213–220.
    1. Elkind D. Egocentrism in adolescence. Child Dev. 1967;38:1025–1034.
    1. Elkind D. Egocentrism redux. Dev. Rev. 1985;5(3):218–226.
    1. Elkind D., Bowen R. Imaginary audience behavior in children and adolescents. Dev. Psychol. 1979;15(1):38–44.
    1. Erath S.A., Flanagan K.S., Bierman K.L. Social anxiety and peer relations in early adolescence: behavioral and cognitive factors. J. Abnorm. Child Psychol. 2007;35:405–416.
    1. Ernst M., Nelson E.E., Jazbec S., McClure E.B., Monk C.S., Leibenluft E., Pine D.S. Amygdala and nucleus accumbens in responses to receipt and omission of gains in adults and adolescents. Neuroimage. 2005;25(4):1279–1291.
    1. Etkin A., Egner T., Peraza D.M., Kandel E.R., Hirsch J. Resolving emotional conflict: a role for the rostral anterior cingulate cortex in modulating activity in the amygdala. Neuron. 2006;51:871–882.
    1. Fair D.A., Schlaggar B.L., Cohen A.L., Miezin F.M., Dosenbach N.U., Wenger K.K., Fox M.D., Snyder A.Z., Raichle M.E., Petersen S.E. A method for using blocked and event-related fMRI data to study resting state functional connectivity. Neuroimage. 2007;35:396–405.
    1. Field A.P. The behavioral inhibition system and the verbal information pathway to children's fears. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 2006;115(4):742.
    1. Forbes E.E., Dahl R.E. Pubertal development and behavior: hormonal activation of social and motivational tendencies. Brain Cogn. 2010;72(1):66–72.
    1. Fu X., Du Y., Au S., Lau J.Y.F. Reducing negative interpretations in adolescents with anxiety disorders: a preliminary study investigating the effects of a single session of cognitive bias modification training. Dev. Cogn. Neurosci. 2013;4:29–37.
    1. Gallagher M., Hollandt P.C. The amygdala complex: Multiple roles in associative learning and attention. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1994;91:11771–11776. (Review)
    1. Gee D.G., Humphreys K.L., Flannery J., Goff B., Telzer E.H., Shapiro M., Tottenham N. A developmental shift from positive to negative connectivity in human amygdala-prefrontal circuitry. J. Neurosci. 2013;33(10):4584–4593.
    1. Goddings A.L., Mills K.L., Clasen L.S., Giedd J.N., Viner R.M., Blakemore S.J. The influence of puberty on subcortical brain development. Neuroimage. 2014;88:242–251.
    1. Gregory A.M., Ph D., Caspi A., Moffitt T.E., Koenen K., Eley T.C., Poulton R. Juvenile mental health histories of adults with anxiety disorders. Am. J. Psychiatry. 2007;164(2):301–308.
    1. Moor B.G., Güroğlu B., Op de Macks Z.A., Rombouts S.A.R.B., Van der Molen M.W., Crone E.A. Social exclusion and punishment of excluders: neural correlates and developmental trajectories. Neuroimage. 2012;59(1):708–717.
    1. Moor B.G., Macks Z.A., Güroglu B., Rombouts S.A., Molen M.W., Crone E.A. Neurodevelopmental changes of reading the mind in the eyes. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci. 2011;7(1):44–52.
    1. Moor B.G., van Leijenhorst L., Rombouts S.A., Crone E.A., van der Molen M.W. Do you like me? Neural correlates of social evaluation and developmental trajectories. Soc. Neurosci. 2010;5(5–6):461–482.
    1. Güroğlu B., van Den Bos W., Crone E.A. Sharing and giving across adolescence: an experimental study examining the development of prosocial behavior. Front. Psychol. 2014;5
    1. Guyer A.E., Benson B., Choate V.R., Bar-Haim Y., Perez-Edgar K., Jarcho J.M., Pine D.S., Ernst M., Fox N.A., Nelson E.E. Lasting associations between early childhood temperament and late-adolescent reward-circuitry response to peer feedback. Dev. Psychopathol. 2014;26(01):229–243.
    1. Guyer A.E., Lau J.Y.F., Mcclure-tone E.B., Parrish J., Fox N.A., Ernst M., Nelson E.E. Amygdala and ventrolateral prefrontal cortex function during anticipated peer evaluation in pediatric social anxiety. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 2008;65(11):1303–1312.
    1. Guyer A.E., Mcclure-tone E.B., Shiffrin N.D., Nelson E.E. Probing the neural correlates of anticipated peer evaluation in adolescence. Child Dev. 2009;80(4):1000–1015.
    1. Haller S.P.W., Kadosh K.C., Lau J.Y.F. A developmental angle to understanding the mechanisms of biased cognitions in social anxiety. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 2014;7:846.
    1. Hauser T.U., Iannaccone R., Walitza S., Brandeis D., Brem S. Cognitive flexibility in adolescence: neural and behavioral mechanisms of reward prediction error processing in adaptive decision making during development. Neuroimage. 2015;104:347–354.
    1. Hardee J.E., Benson B.E., Bar-Haim Y., Mogg K., Bradley B.P., Chen G. Patterns of neural connectivity during an attention bias task moderate associations between early childhood temperament and internalizing symptoms in young adulthood. Biol. Psychiatry. 2013;74:273–279.
    1. Hare T.A., Tottenham N., Galvan A., Voss H.U., Glover G.H., Casey B.J. Biological substrates of emotional reactivity and regulation in adolescence during an emotional go-nogo task. Biol. Psychiatry. 2008;63(10):927–934.
    1. Harter S. Handbook of Child Psychology. Wiley & Sons; 2006. The self.
    1. Helfinstein S.M., Benson B., Perez-Edgar K., Bar-Haim Y., Detloff A., Pine D.S., Ernst M. Striatal responses to negative monetary outcomes differ between temperamentally inhibited and non-inhibited adolescents. Neuropsychologia. 2011;49(3):479–485.
    1. Holmes E.A., Craske M.G., Graybiel A.M. Psychological treatments: a call for mental-health science. Nature. 2014;511(7509):287–289.
    1. Hooper C.J., Luciana M., Conklin H.M., Yarger R.S. Adolescents’ performance on the Iowa gambling task: implications for the development of decision making and ventromedial prefrontal cortex. Dev. Psychol. 2004;40:1148–1158.
    1. Herting M.M., Gautam P., Spielberg J.M., Kan E., Dahl R.E., Sowell E.R. The role of testosterone and estradiol in brain volume changes across adolescence: a longitudinal structural MRI study. Hum. Brain Mapp. 2014;35:5633–5645.
    1. In-Albon T., Dubi K., Rapee R.M., Schneider S. Forced choice reaction time paradigm in children with separation anxiety disorder, social phobia, and nonanxious controls. Behav. Res. Ther. 2009;47(12):1058–1065.
    1. Jarcho J.M., Fox N.A., Pine D.S., Etkin A., Leibenluft E., Shechner T. The neural correlates of emotion-based cognitive control in adults with early childhood behavioral inhibition. Biol. Psychol. 2013;92:306–314.
    1. Jarcho J.M., Fox N.A., Pine D.S., Leibenluft E., Shechner T., Degnan K.A. Enduring influence of early temperament on neural mechanisms mediating attention–emotion conflict in adults. Depress. Anxiety. 2014;31:53–62.
    1. James A.A.C.J., Soler A., Weatherall R.R.W. Cognitive behavioural therapy for anxiety disorders in children and adolescents. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2005;4
    1. James A.C., James G., Cowdrey F.A., Soler A., Choke A. Cognitive behavioural therapy for anxiety disorders in children and adolescents. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2013;6
    1. Jarcho J.M., Leibenluft E., Walker O.L., Fox N.A., Pine D.S., Nelson E.E. Neuroimaging studies of pediatric social anxiety: paradigms, pitfalls and a new direction for investigating the neural mechanisms. Biol. Mood Anxiety Disord. 2013;3(1):14.
    1. Johnston S., Boehm S., Healy D., Goebel R., Linden D. Neurofeedback: a promising tool for the self-regulation of emotion networks. Neuroimage. 2010;49:1066–1072.
    1. Johnston S., Linden D.E.J., Healy D., Goebel R., Habes I., Boehm S.G. Upregulation of emotion areas through neurofeedback with a focus on positive mood. Cogn. Affect. Behav. Neurosci. 2011;11:44–51.
    1. Jones R.M., Somerville L.H., Li J., Ruberry E.J., Powers A., Mehta N., Casey B.J. Adolescent-specific patterns of behavior and neural activity during social reinforcement learning. Cogn. Affect. Behav. Neurosci. 2014:1–15.
    1. Johnson C., Wilbrecht L. Juvenile mice show greater flexibility in multiple choice reversal learning than adults. Dev. Cogn. Neurosci. 2011;1:540–551.
    1. Kaiser S., Harderthauer S., Sachser N., Hennessy M.B. Social housing conditions around puberty determine later changes in plasma cortisol levels and behavior. Physiol. Behav. 2007;90:405–411.
    1. Kessler R.C., Berglund P., Demler O., Jin R., Merikangas K.R., Walters E.E. Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 2005;62:593–602.
    1. Kessler R.C., Chiu W.T., Demler O., Merikangas K.R., Walters E.E. Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 2005;62(6):617–627.
    1. Killgore W.D.S., Deborah A.Y. Social anxiety predicts amygdala activation in adolescents viewing fearful faces. Neuroreport. 2005;16(15):1671–1675.
    1. Kindt M., Bögels S., Morren M. Processing bias in children with separation anxiety disorder, social phobia and generalised anxiety disorder. Behav. Change. 2003;20:143–150.
    1. Kloep M. Love is all you need? Focusing on adolescents’ life concerns from an ecological point of view. J. Adolesc. 1999;22:49–63.
    1. Knight A., McLellan L., Jones M., Hudson J. Pre-treatment predictors of outcome in childhood anxiety disorders: a systematic review. Psychopathol. Rev. 2014;1(1):77–129.
    1. Lau J.Y. Cognitive bias modification of interpretations: a viable treatment for child and adolescent anxiety? Behav. Res. Ther. 2013;51(10):614–622.
    1. Lau J.Y., Britton J.C., Nelson E.E., Angold A., Ernst M., Goldwin M., Pine D.S. Distinct neural signatures of threat learning in adolescents and adults. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2011;108(11):4500–4505.
    1. Lau J.Y.F., Guyer A.E., Tone E.B., Jenness J., Parrish J.M., Pine D.S., Nelson E.E. Neural responses to peer rejection in anxious adolescents: contributions from the amygdala-hippocampal complex. Int. J. Behav. Dev. 2011;36(1):36–44.
    1. Lerner R.M., Steinberg L. John Wiley & Sons; New Jersey: 2004. Handbook of Adolescent Psychology.
    1. Linden D.E., Habes I., Johnston S.J., Linden S., Tatineni R., Subramanian L., Sorger B., Healy D., Goebel R. Real-time self-regulation of emotion networks in patients with depression. PLoS ONE. 2012;7:e38115.
    1. Linden D.E. Neurofeedback and networks of depression. Dialogues clin. neurosci. 2014;16(1):103.
    1. Lipka J., Hoffmann M., Miltner W.H., Straube T. Effects of cognitive-behavioral therapy on brain responses to subliminal and supraliminal threat and their functional significance in specific phobia. Biol. Psychiatry. 2013;14
    1. Leussis M.P., Andersen S.L. Is adolescence a sensitive period for depression? Behavioral and neuroanatomical findings from a social stress model. Synapse. 2008;62:22–30.
    1. Leussis M.P., Lawson K., Stone K., Andersen S.L. The enduring effects of an adolescent social stressor on synaptic density, part II: Poststress reversal of synaptic loss in the cortex by adinazolam and MK-801. Synapse. 2008;62:185–192.
    1. Mathews A., Mackintosh B. Induced emotional interpretation bias and anxiety. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 2000;109(4):602.
    1. Machado C.J., Bachevalier J. The impact of selective amygdala, orbital frontal cortex, or hippocampal formation lesions on established social relationships in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) Behav. Neurosci. 2006;120:761–786.
    1. Masten C.L., Eisenberger N.I., Borofsky L.A., Pfeifer J.H., McNealy K., Mazziotta J.C., Dapretto M. Neural correlates of social exclusion during adolescence: understanding the distress of peer rejection. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci. 2009;4(2):143–157.
    1. McClure E.B., Monk C.S., Nelson E.E., Parrish J.M., Adler A., Blair R.J.R., Pine D.S. Abnormal attention modulation of fear circuit function in pediatric generalized anxiety disorder. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 2007;64(1):97–106.
    1. McRae K., Gross J.J., Weber J., Robertson E.R., Sokol-Hessner P., Ray R.D., Gabrieli J.D.E., Ochsner K.N. The development of emotion regulation: an fMRI study of cognitive reappraisal in children, adolescents and young adults. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci. 2012;7(1):11–22.
    1. Miers A.C., Blöte A.W., Bögels S.M., Westenberg P.M. Interpretation bias and social anxiety in adolescents. J. Anxiety Disord. 2008;22:1462–1471.
    1. Miers A.C., Bloete A.W., Westenberg P.M. Peer perceptions of social skills in socially anxious and nonanxious adolescents. J. Abnorm. Child Psychol. 2010;38:33–41.
    1. Miers A.C., Blöte A.W., Heyne D.A., Westenberg P.M. Developmental pathways of social avoidance across adolescence: the role of social anxiety and negative cognition. J. Anxiety Disord. 2014;28:787–794.
    1. Monk C.S., McClure E.B., Nelson E.E., Zarahn E., Bilder R.M., Leibenluft E., Pine D.S. Adolescent immaturity in attention-related brain engagement to emotional facial expressions. Neuroimage. 2003;20(1):420–428.
    1. Moriguchi Y., Ohnishi T., Mori T., Matsuda H., Komaki G. Changes of brain activity in the neural substrates for theory of mind during childhood and adolescence. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 2007;61(4):355–363.
    1. Morgan J., Banerjee R. Social anxiety and self-evaluation of social performance in a nonclinical sample of children. J. Clin. Child Adolesc. Psychol. 2006;35:292–301.
    1. Muris P. Treatment of childhood anxiety disorders: what is the place for antidepressants? Expert Opin. Pharmacother. 2012;13(1):43–64.
    1. Muris P., Field A.P. Distorted cognition and pathological anxiety in children and adolescents. Cogn. Emotion. 2008;22(3):395–421.
    1. Muris P., Merckelbach H., Damsma E. Threat perception bias in nonreferred, socially anxious children. J. Clin. Child Psychol. 2000;29:348–359.
    1. Nelson E.E., Leibenluft E., McClure E.B., Pine D.S. The social re-orientation of adolescence: a neuroscience perspective on the process and its relation to psychopathology. Psychol. Med. 2005;35(2):163–174.
    1. Nelson E.E., Lau J.Y., Jarcho J.M. Growing pains and pleasures: how emotional learning guides development. Trends Cogn. Sci. 2014;18(2):99–108.
    1. Nelson C.A., Zeanah C.H., Fox N.A., Marshall P.J., Smyke A., Guthrie D. Cognitive recovery in socially deprived young children: the Bucharest Early Intervention Project. Science. 2007;318:1937–1940.
    1. O’Brien S.F., Bierman K.L. Conception and perceived influence of peer groups – interviews with preadolescents and adolescents. Child Dev. 1988;59:1360–1365.
    1. Overgaauw S., van Duijvenvoorde A.C., Moor B.G., Crone E.A. A longitudinal analysis of neural regions involved in reading the mind in the eyes. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci. 2014 (in press)
    1. Pascalis O., Scott L.S., Kelly D.J., Shannon R.W., Nicholson E., Coleman M., Nelson C.A. Plasticity of face processing in infancy. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2005;102(14):5297–5300.
    1. Passarotti A.M., Sweeney J.a., Pavuluri M.N. Neural correlates of incidental and directed facial emotion processing in adolescents and adults. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci. 2009;4(4):387–398.
    1. Pass L., Arteche A., Cooper P., Creswell C., Murray L. Doll Play narratives about starting school in children of socially anxious mothers, and their relation to subsequent child school-based anxiety. J. Abnorm. Child Psychol. 2012;40(8):1375–1384.
    1. Peper J.S., Dahl R.E. Surging hormones: brain–behavior interactions during puberty. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 2013;22(2):134–139.
    1. Pérez-edgar K., Roberson-nay R., Hardin M.G., Poeth K., Guyer A.E., Nelson E.E., McClure E.B., Henderson H.A., Fox N.A., Pine D.S., Ernst M. Attention alters neural responses to evocative faces in behaviorally inhibited adolescents. Neuroimage. 2007;35:1538–1546.
    1. Perez-Edgar K., Bar-Haim Y., McDermott J.M., Chronis-Tuscano A., Pine D.S., Fox N.A. Attention biases to threat and behavioral inhibition in early childhood shape adolescent social withdrawal. Emotion. 2010;10:349–357.
    1. Pfeifer J.H., Masten C.L., Borofsky L.A., Dapretto M., Fuligni A.J., Lieberman M.D. Neural correlates of direct and reflected self-appraisals in adolescents and adults: when social perspective-taking informs self-perception. Child Dev. 2009;80(4):1016–1038.
    1. Pfeifer J.H., Masten C.L., Moore W.E., III, Oswald T.M., Mazziotta J.C., Iacoboni M., Dapretto M. Entering adolescence: resistance to peer influence, risky behavior, and neural changes in emotion reactivity. Neuron. 2011;69:1029–1036.
    1. Porto P., Oliveira L., Mari J., Volchan E., Figueira I., Ventura P. Does cognitive behavioral therapy change the brain: a systematic review of neuroimaging in anxiety disorders. J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 2009;21:114–125.
    1. Pitskel N.B., Bolling D.Z., Kaiser M.D., Crowley M.J., Pelphrey K.A. How grossed out are you? The neural bases of emotion regulation from childhood to adolescence. Dev. Cogn. Neurosci. 2011;1(3):324–337.
    1. Rapee R.M., Spence S.H. The etiology of social phobia: empirical evidence and an initial model. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 2004;24(7):737–767.
    1. Reeb-Sutherland B.C., Vanderwert R.E., Degnan K.A., Marshall P.M., Perez Edgar K., Chronis-Tuscano A. Attention to novelty in behaviorally inhibited adolescents moderates risk for anxiety. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry. 2009;50:1365–1372.
    1. Reijntjes A., Stegge H., Terwogt M.M., Kamphuis J.H., Telch M.J. Children's coping with in vivo peer rejection: an experimental investigation. J. Abnorm. Child Psychol. 2006;34:877–889.
    1. Rheingold A.A., Herbert J.D., Franklin M.E. Cognitive bias in adolescents with social anxiety disorder. Cogn. Ther. Res. 2003;27:639–655.
    1. Romeo R.D., Richardson H.N., Sisk C.L. Puberty and the maturation of the male brain and sexual behavior: recasting a behavioral potential. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2002;26(2002):381–391.
    1. Romeo R.D., Karatsoreos I.N., McEwen B.S. Pubertal maturation and time of day differentially affect behavioral and neuroendocrine responses following an acute stressor. Horm. Behav. 2006;50:463–468.
    1. Romeo R.D., Bellani R., Karatsoreos I.N., Chhua N., Vernov M., Conrad C.D., McEwen B.S. Stress history and pubertal development interact to shape hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis plasticity. Endocrinology. 2006;147:1664–1674.
    1. Roy A.K., Ph D., Vasa R.A., Bruck M., Mogg K., Bradley P., CAMS Team Attention bias toward threat in pediatric anxiety disorders. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiaty. 2009;47(10):1189–1196.
    1. Scherf K.S., Behrmann M., Dahl R.E. Facing changes and changing faces in adolescence: a new model for investigating adolescent-specific interactions between pubertal, brain and behavioral development. Dev. Cogn. Neurosci. 2012;2(2):199–219.
    1. Sebastian C.L., Tan G.C.Y., Roiser J.P., Viding E., Dumontheil I., Blakemore S.-J. Developmental influences on the neural bases of responses to social rejection: implications of social neuroscience for education. Neuroimage. 2011;57(3):686–694.
    1. Shechner T., Rimon-Chakir A., Britton J.C., Lotan D., Apter A., Bliese P.D., Pine D.S., Bar-Haim Y. Attention bias modification treatment augmenting effects on cognitive behavioral therapy in children with anxiety: randomized controlled trial. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry. 2014;53(1):61–71.
    1. Sisk C.L., Foster D.L. The neural basis of puberty and adolescence. Nat. Neurosci. 2004;7(10):1040–1047.
    1. Somerville L.H., Hare T.A., Casey B.J. Fronto striatal maturation predicts behavioral regulation failures to appetitive cues in adolescence. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 2011;23(9):2123–2134.
    1. Straube T., Glauer M., Dilger S., Mentzel H.J., Miltner W.H. Effects of cognitive-behavioral therapy on brain activation in specific phobia. Neuroimage. 2006;29:125–135.
    1. Spence S.H., Donovan C., Brechman-Toussaint M. Social skills, social outcomes, and cognitive features of childhood social phobia. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 1999;108:211–221.
    1. Sportel B.E., de Hullu E., de Jong P.J., Nauta M.H. Cognitive bias modification versus CBT in reducing adolescent social anxiety: a randomized controlled trial. PLOS ONE. 2013;8(5):e64355.
    1. Steinberg L., Silverberg S.B. The vicissitudes of autonomy in early adolescence. Child Dev. 1986;57(4):841–851.
    1. Stirling L.J., Eley T.C., Clark D.M. Preliminary evidence for an association between social anxiety symptoms and avoidance of negative faces in school-age children. J. Clin. Child Adolesc. Psychol. 2006;35(3):440–445.
    1. Sturman D.A., Moghaddam B. The neurobiology of adolescence: changes in brain architecture, functional dynamics, and behavioral tendencies. Neurosci. Behav. Rev. 2011;35:1704–1712.
    1. Van den Bos W., van Dijk E., Westenberg M., Rombouts S.A., Crone E.A. Changing brains, changing perspectives: the neurocognitive development of reciprocity. Psychol. Sci. 2011;22:60–70.
    1. Van den Bos W., van Dijk E., Crone E.A. Learning whom to trust in repeated social interactions: a developmental perspective. Group Process. Intergroup Relat. 2012;15(2):243–256.
    1. Van Duijvenvoorde A.C., Zanolie K., Rombouts S.A., Raijmakers M.E., Crone E.A. Evaluating the negative or valuing the positive? Neural mechanisms supporting feedback-based learning across development. J. Neurosci. 2008;28(38):9495–9503.
    1. Van Leijenhorst L., Zanolie K., Van Meel C.S., Westenberg P.M., Rombouts S.A.R.B., Crone E.A. What motivates the adolescent? Brain regions mediating reward sensitivity across adolescence. Cereb. Cortex. 2010;20(1):61–69.
    1. Vetter N.C., Leipold K., Kliegel M., Phillips L.H., Altgassen M. Ongoing development of social cognition in adolescence. Child Neuropsychol. 2013;19(6):615–629.
    1. Wang T., Lee S.S., Sigman M., Dapretto M. Developmental changes in the neural basis of interpreting communicative intent. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci. 2006;1(2):107–121.
    1. Waters A.M., Pittaway M., Mogg K., Bradley B.P., Pine D.S. Attention training towards positive stimuli in clinically anxious children. Dev. Cogn. Neurosci. 2013;4:77–84.
    1. Weiskopf N., Mathiak K., Bock S.W., Scharnowski F., Veit R., Grodd R., Goebel R., Birbaumer N. Principles of a brain–computer interface (BCI) based on real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 2004;51:966–970.
    1. Weiskopf N., Scharnowski F., Veit R., Goebel R., Birbaumer N., Mathias K. Self-regulation of local brain activity using real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) J. Physiol. Paris. 2004;98:357–373.
    1. Westenberg P.M., Drewes M.J., Goedhart A.W., Siebelink B.M., Treffers P.D.A. A developmental analysis of self-reported fears in late childhood through mid-adolescence: social-evaluative fears on the rise? J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry. 2004;45:481–495.
    1. Wittchen H.U., Stein M.B., Kessler R.C. Social fears and social phobia in a community sample of adolescents and young adults: prevalence, risk factors and co-morbidity. Psychol. Med. 1999;29(2):309–323.
    1. Zotev V., Krueger F., Phillips R., Alvarez R.P., Simmons W.K., Bellgowan P., Drevets W.C., Bodurka J. Self-regulation of amygdala activation using real-time FMRI neurofeedback. PLoS ONE. 2011;6:e24522.

Source: PubMed

スポンサーと協力者

医学的状態

薬物療法

3
購読する