Transforming Experience: The Potential of Augmented Reality and Virtual Reality for Enhancing Personal and Clinical Change

Giuseppe Riva, Rosa M Baños, Cristina Botella, Fabrizia Mantovani, Andrea Gaggioli, Giuseppe Riva, Rosa M Baños, Cristina Botella, Fabrizia Mantovani, Andrea Gaggioli

Abstract

During life, many personal changes occur. These include changing house, school, work, and even friends and partners. However, the daily experience shows clearly that, in some situations, subjects are unable to change even if they want to. The recent advances in psychology and neuroscience are now providing a better view of personal change, the change affecting our assumptive world: (a) the focus of personal change is reducing the distance between self and reality (conflict); (b) this reduction is achieved through (1) an intense focus on the particular experience creating the conflict or (2) an internal or external reorganization of this experience; (c) personal change requires a progression through a series of different stages that however happen in discontinuous and non-linear ways; and (d) clinical psychology is often used to facilitate personal change when subjects are unable to move forward. Starting from these premises, the aim of this paper is to review the potential of virtuality for enhancing the processes of personal and clinical change. First, the paper focuses on the two leading virtual technologies - augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) - exploring their current uses in behavioral health and the outcomes of the 28 available systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Then the paper discusses the added value provided by VR and AR in transforming our external experience by focusing on the high level of personal efficacy and self-reflectiveness generated by their sense of presence and emotional engagement. Finally, it outlines the potential future use of virtuality for transforming our inner experience by structuring, altering, and/or replacing our bodily self-consciousness. The final outcome may be a new generation of transformative experiences that provide knowledge that is epistemically inaccessible to the individual until he or she has that experience, while at the same time transforming the individual's worldview.

Keywords: acute pain; anxiety disorders; augmented reality; body swapping; eating disorders; personal change; post-traumatic stress disorder; virtual reality.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
The reality–virtuality continuum [adapted from Milgram and Kishino (30)].
Figure 2
Figure 2
The role of AR in the experiential cycle [adapted from Kolb (40)].

References

    1. Janoff-Bulman R, Schwartzberg SS. Chapter 24. Toward a general model of personal change. In: Snyder CR, Forsyth DR, editors. Handbook of Social and Clinical Psychology: The Health Perspective. New York: Pergamon Press; (1991). p. 488–508.
    1. Blackie L, Jayawickreme E, Forgeard M, Jayawickreme N. The protective function of belief in personal change among genocide survivors in Rwanda. Pers Individ Dif (2014) 60(S1):S15–6.10.1016/j.paid.2013.07.369
    1. Higginson S, Mansell W. What is the mechanism of psychological change? A qualitative analysis of six individuals who experienced personal change and recovery. Psychol Psychother (2008) 81:309–28.10.1348/147608308X320125
    1. Stiles WB, Shapiro DA, Elliott R. Are all psychotherapies equivalent. Am Psychol (1986) 41(2):165–80.10.1037/0003-066X.41.2.165
    1. Stiles WB, Barkham M, Twigg E, Mellor-Clark J, Cooper M. Effectiveness of cognitive-behavioural, person-centred and psychodynamic therapies as practised in UK National Health Service settings. Psychol Med (2006) 36(4):555–66.10.1017/S0033291706007136
    1. Kottler JA. Change: What Really Leads to Lasting Personal Transformation. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; (2014).
    1. Cohen GL, Sherman DK. The psychology of change: self-affirmation and social psychological intervention. Annu Rev Psychol (2014) 65:333–71.10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115137
    1. Hayes AM, Laurenceau JP, Feldman G, Strauss JL, Cardaciotto L. Change is not always linear: the study of nonlinear and discontinuous patterns of change in psychotherapy. Clin Psychol Rev (2007) 27(6):715–23.10.1016/j.cpr.2007.01.008
    1. Higginson S, Mansell W, Wood AM. An integrative mechanistic account of psychological distress, therapeutic change and recovery: the Perceptual Control Theory approach. Clin Psychol Rev (2011) 31(2):249–59.10.1016/j.cpr.2010.01.005
    1. Vancouver JB, Putka DJ. Analyzing goal-striving processes and a test of the generalizability of perceptual control theory. Organ Behav Hum Decis Process (2000) 82(2):334–62.10.1006/obhd.2000.2901
    1. Gianakis M, Carey TA. An interview study investigating experiences of psychological change without psychotherapy. Psychol Psychother (2011) 84(4):442–57.10.1111/j.2044-8341.2010.02002.x
    1. Sherman DK, Cohen GL. The psychology of self-defense: self-affirmation theory. Adv Exp Soc Psychol (2006) 38:183–242.10.1016/S0065-2601(06)38004-5
    1. Aronson J, Cohen G, Nail PR. Self-affirmation theory: an update and appraisal. In: Harmon-Jones E, Mills J, editors. Cognitive Dissonance: Progress on a Pivotal Theory in Social Psychology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; (1999). p. 127–147.
    1. Bandura A. Exercise of control through self-belief – a citation classic commentary on self-efficacy – toward a unifying theory of behavioral-change by Bandura, A. Cc/Soc Behav Sci (1989) 20:14–14.
    1. Bandura A. Self-efficacy – toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychol Rev (1977) 84(2):191–215.10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191
    1. Bandura A. Social cognitive theory: an agentic perspective. Annu Rev Psychol (2001) 52:1–26.10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.1
    1. Bandura A. Toward a psychology of human agency. Perspect Psychol Sci (2006) 1(2):164–80.10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00011.x
    1. Prochaska JO, DiClemente CC. Transtheoretical therapy: toward a more integrative model of change. Psychother Theory Res Pract (1982) 19(3):212–6.10.1037/h0088437
    1. Prochaska JO, DiClemente CC. Stages and processes of self-change in smoking toward an integrative model of change. J Consult Clin Psychol (1983) 5:390–5.10.1037/0022-006X.51.3.390
    1. Prochaska JO, DiClemente CC, Norcross JC. In search of how people change. Am Psychol (1992) 47(9):1102–14.10.1037/0003-066X.47.9.1102
    1. Miller WR, C’de Baca J. Quantum Change: When Epiphanies and Sudden Insights Transform Ordinary Lives. New York: Guilford Press; (2001).
    1. Mezirow J. Learning as Transformation: Critical Perspectives on a Theory in Progress. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass; (2000).
    1. Mezirow J. Transformative Dimensions of Adult Learning. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass; (1991).
    1. Riva G. Phenomenology of positive change: personal growth. In: Inghilleri P, Riva G, Riva E, editors. Enabling Positive Change Flow and Complexity in Daily Experience. Berlin: De Gruyter; (2014). p. 15–28.
    1. Gaggioli A. Transformative experience design. In: Gaggioli A, Ferscha A, Riva G, Dunne S, Viaud-Delmon I, editors. Human Computer Confluence: Transforming Human Experience Through Symbiotic Technologies. Warsaw: De Gruyter Open; (2015). p. 97–121.
    1. Wolfe BE. The role of lived experience in self- and relational observation: a commentary on Horowitz (2002). J Psychother Integr (2002) 12(2):147–53.10.1037/1053-0479.12.2.147
    1. Hugues O, Fuchs P, Nannipieri O. New Augmented Reality Taxonomy: Technologies and Features of Augmented Environment. Heidelberg: Springer; (2011).
    1. Chicchi Giglioli IA, Pallavicini F, Pedroli E, Serino S, Riva G. Augmented reality: a brand new challenge for the assessment and treatment of psychological disorders. Comput Math Methods Med (2015) 862942:1–13.10.1155/2015/862942
    1. Juan MC, Alcaniz M, Monserrat C, Botella C, Banos RM, Guerrero B. Using augmented reality to treat phobias. IEEE Comput Graph Appl (2005) 25(6):31–7.10.1109/MCG.2005.143
    1. Milgram P, Kishino F. A taxonomy of mixed reality visual displays. IEICE Trans Inf Syst (1994) 12:1321–9.
    1. van Krevelen DWF, Poelman R. A survey of augmented reality technologies, applications and limitations. Int J Virtual Real (2010) 9(2):1–20.
    1. Baus O, Bouchard S. Moving from virtual reality exposure-based therapy to augmented reality exposure-based therapy: a review. Front Hum Neurosci (2014) 8:112.10.3389/fnhum.2014.00112
    1. Shiban Y, Schelhorn I, Pauli P, Muhlberger A. Effect of combined multiple contexts and multiple stimuli exposure in spider phobia: a randomized clinical trial in virtual reality. Behav Res Ther (2015) 71:45–53.10.1016/j.brat.2015.05.014
    1. Trojan J, Diers M, Fuchs X, Bach F, Bekrater-Bodmann R, Foell J, et al. An augmented reality home-training system based on the mirror training and imagery approach. Behav Res Methods (2014) 46(3):634–40.10.3758/s13428-013-0412-4
    1. Lin CY, Chang YM. Interactive augmented reality using Scratch 2.0 to improve physical activities for children with developmental disabilities. Res Dev Disabil (2015) 37:1–8.10.1016/j.ridd.2014.10.016
    1. Kaber D, Tupler LA, Clamann M, Gil GH, Zhu B, Swangnetr M, et al. Evaluation of an augmented virtual reality and haptic control interface for psychomotor training. Assist Technol (2014) 26(1):51–60.10.1080/10400435.2013.800923
    1. Chung PJ, Vanderbilt DL, Soares NS. Social behaviors and active videogame play in children with autism spectrum disorder. Games Health J (2015) 4(3):225–34.10.1089/g4h.2014.0125
    1. Chen CH, Lee IJ, Lin LY. Augmented reality-based self-facial modeling to promote the emotional expression and social skills of adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. Res Dev Disabil (2014) 36C:396–403.10.1016/j.ridd.2014.10.015
    1. Mott J, Bucolo S, Cuttle L, Mill J, Hilder M, Miller K, et al. The efficacy of an augmented virtual reality system to alleviate pain in children undergoing burns dressing changes: a randomised controlled trial. Burns (2008) 34(6):803–8.10.1016/j.burns.2007.10.010
    1. Kolb DA. Experiential Learning as the Science of Learning and Development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall; (1984).
    1. Konak A, Clark TK, Nasereddin M. Using Kolb’s experiential learning cycle to improve student learning in virtual computer laboratories. Comput Educ (2014) 72:11–22.10.1016/j.compedu.2013.10.013
    1. Botella C, Breton-Lopez J, Quero S, Banos R, Garcia-Palacios A. Treating cockroach phobia with augmented reality. Behav Ther (2010) 41(3):401–13.10.1016/j.beth.2009.07.002
    1. Breton-Lopez J, Quero S, Botella C, Garcia-Palacios A, Banos RM, Alcaniz M. An augmented reality system validation for the treatment of cockroach phobia. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw (2010) 13(6):705–10.10.1089/cyber.2009.0170
    1. Botella C, Breton-Lopez J, Quero S, Banos RM, Garcia-Palacios A, Zaragoza I, et al. Treating cockroach phobia using a serious game on a mobile phone and augmented reality exposure: a single case study. Comput Human Behav (2011) 27(1):217–27.10.1016/j.chb.2010.07.043
    1. Di Serio A, Ibanez MB, Kloos CD. Impact of an augmented reality system on students’ motivation for a visual art course. Comput Educ (2013) 68:586–96.10.1016/j.compedu.2012.03.002
    1. Wu HK, Lee SWY, Chang HY, Liang JC. Current status, opportunities and challenges of augmented reality in education. Comput Educ (2013) 62:41–9.10.1016/j.compedu.2012.10.024
    1. Riva G, Botella C, Baños R, Mantovani F, García-Palacios A, Quero S, et al. Presence-inducing media for mental health applications. In: Lombard M, Biocca F, Freeman J, Ijsselsteijn W, Schaevitz RJ, editors. Immersed in Media. New York: Springer International Publishing; (2015). p. 283–332.
    1. Riva G, Gamberini L. Virtual reality in telemedicine. Telemed J E Health (2004) 6(3):327–40.10.1089/153056200750040183
    1. Schultheis MT, Rizzo AA. The application of virtual reality technology in rehabilitation. Rehabil Psychol (2001) 46(3):296–311.10.1037/0090-5550.46.3.296
    1. Riva G. Virtual environments in neuroscience. IEEE Trans Inf Technol Biomed (1998) 2(4):275–81.10.1109/4233.737583
    1. Riva G, Waterworth JA. Presence and the self: a cognitive neuroscience approach. Presence Connect (2003) 3(3). Available from:
    1. Gorini A, Capideville CS, De Leo G, Mantovani F, Riva G. The role of immersion and narrative in mediated presence: the virtual hospital experience. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw (2011) 14(3):99–105.10.1089/cyber.2010.0100
    1. Zahoric P, Jenison RL. Presence as being-in-the-world. Presence (Camb) (1998) 7(1):78–89.10.1162/105474698565541
    1. Riva G, Waterworth JA, Murray D, editors. Interacting with Presence: HCI and the Sense of Presence in Computer-Mediated Environments. Berlin: De Gruyter Open; (2014). Available from:
    1. Riva G, Davide F, IJsselsteijn WA, editors. Being There: Concepts, effects and Measurements of User Presence in Synthetic Environments. Amsterdam: Ios Press; (2003).
    1. Lee KM. Presence, explicated. Commun Theory (2004) 14(1):27–50.10.1111/j.1468-2885.2004.tb00302.x
    1. Lombard M, Biocca F, Freeman J, IJsselsteijn W, Schaevitz RJ, editors. Immersed in Media. Telepresence Theory, Measurement & Technology. Heidelberg: Springer; (2015).
    1. Waterworth JA, Riva G. Feeling Present in the Physical World and in Computer-Mediated Environments. London: Palgrave Macmillan; (2014).
    1. Banos RM, Botella C, Alcaniz M, Liano V, Guerrero B, Rey B. Immersion and emotion: their impact on the sense of presence. Cyberpsychol Behav (2004) 7(6):734–41.10.1089/cpb.2004.7.734
    1. Banos RM, Botella C, Rubio I, Quero S, Garcia-Palacios A, Alcaniz M. Presence and emotions in virtual environments: the influence of stereoscopy. Cyberpsychol Behav (2008) 11(1):1–8.10.1089/cpb.2007.9936
    1. Pillai JS, Schmidt C, Richir S. Achieving presence through evoked reality. Front Psychol (2013) 4:86.10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00086
    1. Diemer J, Alpers GW, Peperkorn HM, Shiban Y, Muhlberger A. The impact of perception and presence on emotional reactions: a review of research in virtual reality. Front Psychol (2015) 6:26.10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00026
    1. Sethi AK, Suzuki K, Critchley HD. An interoceptive predictive coding model of conscious presence. Front Psychol (2012) 3:395.10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00395
    1. Riva G. Neuroscience and eating disorders: the allocentric lock hypothesis. Med Hypotheses (2012) 78:254–7.10.1016/j.mehy.2011.10.039
    1. Riva G. Is presence a technology issue? Some insights from cognitive sciences. Virtual Real (2009) 13(3):59–69.10.1007/s10055-009-0121-6
    1. Ling Y, Nefs HT, Morina N, Heynderickx I, Brinkman WP. A meta-analysis on the relationship between self-reported presence and anxiety in virtual reality exposure therapy for anxiety disorders. PLoS One (2014) 9(5):e96144.10.1371/journal.pone.0096144
    1. Baños RM, Botella C, Guerrero B, Liaño V, Alcañiz M, Rey B. The third pole of the sense of presence: comparing virtual and imagery spaces. PsychNol J (2005) 3(1):90–100. Available from:
    1. Riva G, Bacchetta M, Cesa G, Conti S, Molinari E. Six-month follow-up of in-patient experiential-cognitive therapy for binge eating disorders. Cyberpsychol Behav (2003) 6(3):251–8.10.1089/109493103322011533
    1. North MM, North SM, Coble JR. Virtual reality therapy: an effective treatment for psychological disorders. Stud Health Technol Inform (1997) 44:59–70.
    1. Vincelli F. From imagination to virtual reality: the future of clinical psychology. Cyberpsychol Behav (1999) 2(3):241–8.10.1089/cpb.1999.2.241
    1. Vincelli F, Molinari E, Riva G. Virtual reality as clinical tool: immersion and three-dimensionality in the relationship between patient and therapist. Stud Health Technol Inform (2001) 81:551–3.10.3233/978-1-60750-925-7-551
    1. Glantz K, Durlach NI, Barnett RC, Aviles WA. Virtual reality (VR) and psychotherapy: opportunities and challenges. Presence (Camb) (1997) 6(1):87–105.10.1162/pres.1997.6.1.87
    1. Riva G, Mantovani F, Gaggioli A. Presence and rehabilitation: toward second-generation virtual reality applications in neuropsychology. J Neuroeng Rehabil (2004) 1(1):9.10.1186/1743-0003-1-9
    1. Parsons TD, Rizzo AA. Affective outcomes of virtual reality exposure therapy for anxiety and specific phobias: a meta-analysis. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry (2008) 39(3):250–61.10.1016/j.jbtep.2007.07.007
    1. Powers MB, Emmelkamp PM. Virtual reality exposure therapy for anxiety disorders: a meta-analysis. J Anxiety Disord (2008) 22(3):561–9.10.1016/j.janxdis.2007.04.006
    1. Meyerbroker K, Emmelkamp PM. Virtual reality exposure therapy in anxiety disorders: a systematic review of process-and-outcome studies. Depress Anxiety (2010) 27(10):933–44.10.1002/da.20734
    1. Opris D, Pintea S, Garcia-Palacios A, Botella C, Szamoskozi S, David D. Virtual reality exposure therapy in anxiety disorders: a quantitative meta-analysis. Depress Anxiety (2012) 29(2):85–93.10.1002/da.20910
    1. McCann RA, Armstrong CM, Skopp NA, Edwards-Stewart A, Smolenski DJ, June JD, et al. Virtual reality exposure therapy for the treatment of anxiety disorders: an evaluation of research quality. J Anxiety Disord (2014) 28(6):625–31.10.1016/j.janxdis.2014.05.010
    1. Diemer J, Muhlberger A, Pauli P, Zwanzger P. Virtual reality exposure in anxiety disorders: impact on psychophysiological reactivity. World J Biol Psychiatry (2014) 15(6):427–42.10.3109/15622975.2014.892632
    1. Goncalves R, Pedrozo AL, Coutinho ES, Figueira I, Ventura P. Efficacy of virtual reality exposure therapy in the treatment of PTSD: a systematic review. PLoS One (2012) 7(12):e48469.10.1371/journal.pone.0048469
    1. Serino S, Triberti S, Villani D, Cipresso P, Gaggioli A, Riva G. Toward a validation of cyber-interventions for stress disorders based on stress inoculation training: a systematic review. Virtual Real (2014) 18(1):73–87.10.1007/s10055-013-0237-6
    1. Motraghi TE, Seim RW, Meyer EC, Morissette SB. Virtual reality exposure therapy for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: a methodological review using CONSORT guidelines. J Clin Psychol (2014) 70(3):197–208.10.1002/jclp.22051
    1. Botella C, Serrano B, Baños R, García-Palacios A. Virtual reality exposure-based therapy for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. A review of its efficacy, the adequacy of the treatment protocol, and its acceptability. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat (2015) 15:2533–45.10.2147/NDT.S89542
    1. Choi YH, Vincelli F, Riva G, Wiederhold BK, Lee JH, Park KH. Effects of group experiential cognitive therapy for the treatment of panic disorder with agoraphobia. Cyberpsychol Behav (2005) 8(4):387–93.10.1089/cpb.2005.8.387
    1. Riva G, Mantovani F. Being there: understanding the feeling of presence in a synthetic environment and its potential for clinical change. In: Eichenberg C, editor. Virtual Reality in Psychological, Medical and Pedagogical Applications. New York: InTech; (2012). p. 3–34. Available from:
    1. Gorini A, Riva G. Virtual reality in anxiety disorders: the past and the future. Expert Rev Neurother (2008) 8(2):215–33.10.1586/14737175.8.2.215
    1. Shiban Y, Pauli P, Muhlberger A. Effect of multiple context exposure on renewal in spider phobia. Behav Res Ther (2013) 51(2):68–74.10.1016/j.brat.2012.10.007
    1. Dunsmoor JE, Ahs F, Zielinski DJ, LaBar KS. Extinction in multiple virtual reality contexts diminishes fear reinstatement in humans. Neurobiol Learn Mem (2014) 113:157–64.10.1016/j.nlm.2014.02.010
    1. Craske MG, Treanor M, Conway CC, Zbozinek T, Vervliet B. Maximizing exposure therapy: an inhibitory learning approach. Behav Res Ther (2014) 58:10–23.10.1016/j.brat.2014.04.006
    1. Bordnick PS, Carter BL, Traylor AC. What virtual reality research in addictions can tell us about the future of obesity assessment and treatment. J Diabetes Sci Technol (2011) 5(2):265–71.10.1177/193229681100500210
    1. Hone-Blanchet A, Wensing T, Fecteau S. The use of virtual reality in craving assessment and cue-exposure therapy in substance use disorders. Front Hum Neurosci (2014) 8:844.10.3389/fnhum.2014.00844
    1. Bordnick PS, Graap KM, Copp HL, Brooks J, Ferrer M. Virtual reality cue reactivity assessment in cigarette smokers. Cyberpsychol Behav (2005) 8(5):487–92.10.1089/cpb.2005.8.487
    1. Bordnick PS, Traylor A, Copp HL, Graap KM, Carter B, Ferrer M, et al. Assessing reactivity to virtual reality alcohol based cues. Addict Behav (2008) 33(6):743–56.10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.12.010
    1. Pericot-Valverde I, Germeroth LJ, Tiffany ST. The use of virtual reality in the production of cue-specific craving for cigarettes: a meta-analysis. Nicotine Tob Res (2016) 18(5):538–46.10.1093/ntr/ntv216
    1. Riva G. Virtual reality for health care: the status of research. Cyberpsychol Behav (2002) 5(3):219–25.10.1089/109493102760147213
    1. Aresti-Bartolome N, Garcia-Zapirain B. Technologies as support tools for persons with autistic spectrum disorder: a systematic review. Int J Env Res Pub He (2014) 11(8):7767–802.10.3390/ijerph110807767
    1. den Brok W, Sterkenburg P. Self-controlled technologies to support skill attainment in persons with an autism spectrum disorder and/or an intellectual disability: a systematic literature review. Disabil Rehabil Assist Technol (2014) 10(1):1–10.10.3109/17483107.2014.921248
    1. Riva G, Wiederhold BK. The new dawn of virtual reality in health care: medical simulation and experiential interface. Annu Rev Cybertherapy Telemed (2015) 13:3–6.
    1. Pla-Sanjuanelo J, Ferrer-Garcia M, Gutiérrez-Maldonado J, Vilalta-Abella F, Andreu-Gracia A, Dakanalis A, et al. Trait and state craving as indicators of validity of VR-based software for binge eating treatment. Annu Rev Cybertherapy Telemed (2015) 13:141–6.
    1. Ferrer-Garcia M, Gutiérrez-Maldonado J, Pla-Sanjuanelo J, Vilalta-Abella F, Andreu-Gracia A, Dakanalis A, et al. External eating as a predictor of cue-reactivity to food-related virtual environments. Annu Rev Cybertherapy Telemed (2015) 13:117–22.
    1. Botella C, Quero S, Banos RM, Perpina C, Garcia Palacios A, Riva G. Virtual reality and psychotherapy. Stud Health Technol Inform (2004) 99:37–54.10.3233/978-1-60750-943-1-37
    1. Riva G, Gaggioli A, Villani D, Preziosa A, Morganti F, Corsi R, et al. NeuroVR: an open source virtual reality platform for clinical psychology and behavioral neurosciences. Stud Health Technol Inform (2007) 125:394–9.
    1. Friedman D, Pizarro R, Or-Berkers K, Neyret S, Pan X, Slater M. A method for generating an illusion of backwards time travel using immersive virtual reality-an exploratory study. Front Psychol (2014) 5:943.10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00943
    1. Riva G. Medical clinical uses of virtual worlds. In: Grimshaw M, editor. The Oxford Handbook of Virtuality. New York: Oxford University Press; (2014). p. 649–65.
    1. Li J, Theng YL, Foo S. Game-based digital interventions for depression therapy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw (2014) 17(8):519–27.10.1089/cyber.2013.0481
    1. Valmaggia LR, Day F, Rus-Calafell M. Using virtual reality to investigate psychological processes and mechanisms associated with the onset and maintenance of psychosis: a systematic review. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol (2016) 51(7):921–36.10.1007/s00127-016-1245-0
    1. Välimäki M, Hatonen HM, Lahti ME, Kurki M, Hottinen A, Metsaranta K, et al. Virtual reality for treatment compliance for people with serious mental illness. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2014) 10:CD009928.10.1002/14651858.CD009928.pub2
    1. Veling W, Moritz S, van der Gaag M. Brave new worlds – review and update on virtual reality assessment and treatment in psychosis. Schizophr Bull (2014) 40(6):1194–7.10.1093/schbul/sbu125
    1. Morris LD, Louw QA, Grimmer-Somers K. The effectiveness of virtual reality on reducing pain and anxiety in burn injury patients: a systematic review. Clin J Pain (2009) 25(9):815–26.10.1097/AJP.0b013e3181aaa909
    1. Malloy KM, Milling LS. The effectiveness of virtual reality distraction for pain reduction: a systematic review. Clin Psychol Rev (2010) 30(8):1011–8.10.1016/j.cpr.2010.07.001
    1. Garrett B, Taverner T, Masinde W, Gromala D, Shaw C, Negraeff M. A rapid evidence assessment of immersive virtual reality as an adjunct therapy in acute pain management in clinical practice. Clin J Pain (2014) 30(12):1089–98.10.1097/AJP.0000000000000064
    1. Triberti S, Repetto C, Riva G. Psychological factors influencing the effectiveness of virtual reality-based analgesia: a systematic review. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw (2014) 17(6):335–45.10.1089/cyber.2014.0054
    1. Castelnuovo G, Giusti EM, Manzoni GM, Saviola D, Gatti A, Gabrielli S, et al. Psychological treatments and psychotherapies in the neurorehabilitation of pain: evidences and recommendations from the italian consensus conference on pain in neurorehabilitation. Front Psychol (2016) 7:115.10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00115
    1. Ferrer-Garcia M, Gutierrez-Maldonado J. The use of virtual reality in the study, assessment, and treatment of body image in eating disorders and nonclinical samples: a review of the literature. Body Image (2012) 9(1):1–11.10.1016/j.bodyim.2011.10.001
    1. Ferrer-Garcia M, Gutiérrez-Maldonado J, Riva G. Virtual reality based treatments in eating disorders and obesity: a review. J Contemp Psychol (2013) 43(4):207–21.10.1007/s10879-013-9240-1
    1. Koskina A, Campbell IC, Schmidt U. Exposure therapy in eating disorders revisited. Neurosci Biobehav Rev (2013) 37(2):193–208.10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.11.010
    1. Wiederhold BK, Riva G, Gutiérrez-Maldonado J. Virtual reality in the assessment and treatment of weight-related disorders. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw (2016) 19(2):67–73.10.1089/cyber.2016.0012
    1. Gutiérrez-Maldonado J, Wiederhold BK, Riva G. Future directions: how virtual reality can further improve the assessment and treatment of eating disorders and obesity. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw (2016) 19:148–53.10.1089/cyber.2015.0412
    1. Riva G, Dakanalis A, Mantovani F. Leveraging psychology of virtual body for health and wellness. In: Sundar SS, editor. The Handbook of the Psychology of Communication Technology. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd; (2015). p. 528–47.
    1. Riva G, Mantovani F. Extending the self through the tools and the others: a general framework for presence and social presence in mediated interactions. In: Riva G, Waterworth JA, Murray D, editors. Interacting with Presence: HCI and the Sense of Presence in Computer-Mediated Environments. Berlin: De Gruyter Open; (2014). p. 12–34. Available from:
    1. Riva G, Mantovani F. From the body to the tools and back: a general framework for presence in mediated interactions. Interact Comput (2012) 24(4):203–10.10.1016/j.intcom.2012.04.007
    1. Regan EC, Price KR. Some Side-Effects of Immersion Virtual Reality: The Effects of Increasing Head Movements, of Rapid Interaction, and of Seated Subjects. Farnborough, UK: Army Personnel Research Establishment; (1993). Report 93R022.
    1. Pfeiffer C, Lopez C, Schmutz V, Duenas JA, Martuzzi R, Blanke O. Multisensory origin of the subjective first-person perspective: visual, tactile, and vestibular mechanisms. PLoS One (2013) 8(4):e61751.10.1371/journal.pone.0061751
    1. Blanke O. Multisensory brain mechanisms of bodily self-consciousness. Nat Rev Neurosci (2012) 13(8):556–71.10.1038/nrn3292
    1. Vogeley K, Fink GR. Neural correlates of the first-person-perspective. Trends Cogn Sci (2003) 7(1):38–42.10.1016/S1364-6613(02)00003-7
    1. Shilling C. The Body & Social Theory. London: SAGE; (2012).
    1. Crossley N. The Social Body: Habit, Identity and Desire. London: SAGE; (2001).
    1. Durlik C, Cardini F, Tsakiris M. Being watched: the effect of social self-focus on interoceptive and exteroceptive somatosensory perception. Conscious Cogn (2014) 25:42–50.10.1016/j.concog.2014.01.010
    1. Garfinkel SN, Critchley HD. Interoception, emotion and brain: new insights link internal physiology to social behaviour. Commentary on: “anterior insular cortex mediates bodily sensibility and social anxiety” by Terasawa et al. (2012). Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci (2013) 8(3):231–4.10.1093/scan/nss140
    1. Tsakiris M, Longo MR, Haggard P. Having a body versus moving your body: neural signatures of agency and body-ownership. Neuropsychologia (2010) 48(9):2740–9.10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.05.021
    1. Slaughter V, Brownell C, editors. Early Development of Body Representations. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; (2012).
    1. Gallagher S. How the Body Shapes the Mind. Oxford: Oxford University; (2005).
    1. Bechara A, Damasio A. The somatic marker hypothesis: a neural theory of economic decision. Games Econ Behav (2005) 52:336–72.10.1016/j.geb.2004.06.010
    1. Riva G. Out of my real body: cognitive neuroscience meets eating disorders. Front Hum Neurosci (2014) 8:236.10.3389/fnhum.2014.00236
    1. Melzack R. Evolution of the neuromatrix theory of pain. The Prithvi Raj Lecture: presented at the Third World Congress of World Institute of Pain, Barcelona 2004. Pain Pract (2005) 5(2):85–94.10.1111/j.1533-2500.2005.05203.x
    1. Wilson M. Covert imitation. In: Knoblich G, Thornton IM, Grosjean M, Shiffrar M, editors. Human Body Perception from the Inside Out. New York: Oxford University Press; (2006). p. 211–28.
    1. Lenggenhager B, Tadi T, Metzinger T, Blanke O. Video ergo sum: manipulating bodily self-consciousness. Science (2007) 317(5841):1096–9.10.1126/science.1143439
    1. Ehrsson HH. The experimental induction of out-of-body experiences. Science (2007) 5841(317):1048.10.1126/science.1142175
    1. Bergouignan L, Nyberg L, Ehrsson HH. Out-of-body-induced hippocampal amnesia. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A (2014) 111(12):4421–6.10.1073/pnas.1318801111
    1. Olive I, Berthoz A. Combined induction of rubber-hand illusion and out-of-body experiences. Front Psychol (2012) 3:128.10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00128
    1. Pomes A, Slater M. Drift and ownership toward a distant virtual body. Front Hum Neurosci (2013) 7:908.10.3389/fnhum.2013.00908
    1. Maselli A, Slater M. Sliding perspectives: dissociating ownership from self-location during full body illusions in virtual reality. Front Hum Neurosci (2014) 8:693.10.3389/fnhum.2014.00693
    1. Costantini M. Body perception, awareness, and illusions. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Cogn Sci (2014) 5(5):551–60.10.1002/wcs.1309
    1. Gallace A, Spence C. Outside the boundaries of our bodies: the relationship between touch and the representation of the body in our mind. In: Gallace A, Spence C, editors. In Touch with the Future: The Sense of Touch from Cognitive Neuroscience to Virtual Reality. Oxford: Oxford University Press; (2014). p. 102–24.
    1. Tsakiris M, Haggard P. The rubber hand illusion revisited: visuotactile integration and self-attribution. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform (2005) 31(1):80–91.10.1037/0096-1523.31.1.80
    1. Perez-Marcos D, Slater M, Sanchez-Vives MV. Inducing a virtual hand ownership illusion through a brain-computer interface. Neuroreport (2009) 20(6):589–94.10.1097/WNR.0b013e32832a0a2a
    1. Slater M, Perez-Marcos D, Ehrsson HH, Sanchez-Vives MV. Inducing illusory ownership of a virtual body. Front Neurosci (2009) 3(2):214–20.10.3389/neuro.01.029.2009
    1. Maister L, Slater M, Sanchez-Vives MV, Tsakiris M. Changing bodies changes minds: owning another body affects social cognition. Trends Cogn Sci (2015) 19(1):6–12.10.1016/j.tics.2014.11.001
    1. Riva G, Banos RM, Botella C, Wiederhold BK, Gaggioli A. Positive technology: using interactive technologies to promote positive functioning. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw (2012) 15(2):69–77.10.1089/cyber.2011.0139
    1. Waterworth JA, Waterworth EL. Altered, expanded and distributed embodiment: the three stages of interactive presence. In: Riva G, Waterworth JA, Murray D, editors. Interacting with Presence: HCI and the Sense of Presence in Computer-Mediated Environments. Berlin: De Gruyter Open; (2014). p. 36–50. Available from:
    1. Ginzburg K, Tsur N, Barak-Nahum A, Defrin R. Body awareness: differentiating between sensitivity to and monitoring of bodily signals. J Behav Med (2014) 37(3):564–75.10.1007/s10865-013-9514-9
    1. Gaggioli A, Pallavicini F, Morganti L, Serino S, Scaratti C, Briguglio M, et al. Experiential virtual scenarios with real-time monitoring (interreality) for the management of psychological stress: a block randomized controlled trial. J Med Internet Res (2014) 16(7):e167.10.2196/jmir.3235
    1. Repetto C, Gorini A, Algeri D, Vigna C, Gaggioli A, Riva G. The use of biofeedback in clinical virtual reality: the intrepid project. Stud Health Technol Inform (2009) 144:128–32.
    1. Petkova VI, Ehrsson HH. If i were you: perceptual illusion of body swapping. PLoS One (2008) 3(12):e3832.10.1371/journal.pone.0003832
    1. Serino S, Pedroli E, Keizer A, Triberti S, Dakanalis A, Pallavicini F, et al. Virtual reality body swapping: a tool for modifying the allocentric memory of the body. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw (2016) 19(2):127–33.10.1089/cyber.2015.0229
    1. Oliveira ECD, Bertrand P, Lesur MER, Palomo P, Demarzo M, Cebolla A, et al., editors. Virtual body swap: a new feasible tool to be explored in health and education. 2016 XVIII Symposium on Virtual and Augmented Reality (SVR). (2016). p. 81–89.
    1. Serino S, Scarpina F, Keizer A, Pedroli E, Dakanalis A, Castelnuovo G, et al. A novel technique for improving bodily experience in a non-operable super-super obesity case. Front Psychol (2016) 7:837.10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00837
    1. Mezirow J. Learning to think like an adult: core concepts of transformation theory. In: Taylor EW, Cranton P, editors. The Handbook of Transformative Learning: Theory, Research, AND Practice. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass; (2012). p. 73–95.
    1. Riva G, Wiederhold BK, Gaggioli A. Being different. The transfomative potential of virtual reality. Annu Rev Cybertherapy Telemed (2016) 14:1–4.

Source: PubMed

スポンサーと協力者

医学的状態

薬物療法

3
購読する