Control freaks: Towards optimal selection of control conditions for fMRI neurofeedback studies

Abstract

fMRI Neurofeedback research employs many different control conditions. Currently, there is no consensus as to which control condition is best, and the answer depends on what aspects of the neurofeedback-training design one is trying to control for. These aspects can range from determining whether participants can learn to control brain activity via neurofeedback to determining whether there are clinically significant effects of the neurofeedback intervention. Lack of consensus over criteria for control conditions has hampered the design and interpretation of studies employing neurofeedback protocols. This paper presents an overview of the most commonly employed control conditions currently used in neurofeedback studies and discusses their advantages and disadvantages. Control conditions covered include no control, treatment-as-usual, bidirectional-regulation control, feedback of an alternative brain signal, sham feedback, and mental-rehearsal control. We conclude that the selection of the control condition(s) should be determined by the specific research goal of the study and best procedures that effectively control for relevant confounding factors.

Keywords: Control conditions; Mental-rehearsal; Neurofeedback; Placebo; Real-time neuroimaging; Sham.

Conflict of interest statement

Declaration of Interest

MH has a patent application for fNIRS neurofeedback titled “Methods and systems for treating a subject using NIRS neurofeedback” (PCT/US2017/036532, filed June 8, 2017). All other authors declare no conflict of interest.

Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Figures

Figure 1:

Overview of control conditions for neurofeedback studies