A narrative synthesis of research with 5-MeO-DMT

Anna O Ermakova, Fiona Dunbar, James Rucker, Matthew W Johnson, Anna O Ermakova, Fiona Dunbar, James Rucker, Matthew W Johnson

Abstract

Background: 5-Methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT) is a naturally occurring, short-acting psychedelic tryptamine, produced by a variety of plant and animal species. Plants containing 5-MeO-DMT have been used throughout history for ritual and spiritual purposes. The aim of this article is to review the available literature about 5-MeO-DMT and inform subsequent clinical development.

Methods: We searched PubMed database for articles about 5-MeO-DMT. Search results were cross-checked against earlier reviews and reference lists were hand searched. Findings were synthesised using a narrative synthesis approach. This review covers the pharmacology, chemistry and metabolism of 5-MeO-DMT, as well epidemiological studies, and reported adverse and beneficial effects.

Results: 5-MeO-DMT is serotonergic agonist, with highest affinity for 5-HT1A receptors. It was studied in a variety of animal models, but clinical studies with humans are lacking. Epidemiological studies indicate that, like other psychedelics, 5-MeO-DMT induces profound alterations in consciousness (including mystical experiences), with potential beneficial long-term effects on mental health and well-being.

Conclusion: 5-MeO-DMT is a potentially useful addition to the psychedelic pharmacopoeia because of its short duration of action, relative lack of visual effects and putatively higher rates of ego-dissolution and mystical experiences. We conclude that further clinical exploration is warranted, using similar precautions as with other classic psychedelics.

Keywords: 5-MeO-DMT; 5-methoxy-N; N-dimethyltryptamine; classic psychedelic; hallucinogen; tryptamine.

Conflict of interest statement

Declaration of conflicting interests: The author(s) declared the following potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: A.O.E., J.R., F.D., and M.W.J. provide paid consulting services to Beckley Psytech. M.W.J. also provides paid consulting services to AJNA Labs, AWAKN Life Sciences, Entheogen Biomedical, Field Trip Psychedelics, MindMed, Otsuka Pharmaceutical Development & Commercialization and Silo Pharma. M.W.J. is a Professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine. M.W.J. engaged in this research as a private advisor and not in his capacity as a Johns Hopkins faculty member. M.W.J. was compensated for the advising service in income and stock options. J.R. leads the Psychedelic Trials Group at King’s College London. King’s College London receives grant funding from Compass Pathways and Beckley Psytech to undertake clinical trials with psychedelics. This work presents independent research part-funded by the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Biomedical Research Centre at South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust and King’s College London. The views expressed are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of the NHS, the NIHR or the Department of Health.

Figures

Figure 1.
Figure 1.
PRISMA flow diagram.
Figure 2.
Figure 2.
Metabolism of 5-MeO-DMT.

References

    1. Abramson HA, Gettner HH, Carone PA, et al.. (1979) The intracranial injection of drugs in goldfish – I: Hallucinogens and their antagonism to smooth muscle activity. Journal of Asthma Research 16(2): 55–61.
    1. Acosta-Urquidi J. (2015) QEEG studies of the acute effects of the visionary tryptamine DMT. Cosmos and History: The Journal of Natural and Social Philosophy 11(2): 115–129.
    1. Adrien J, Lanfumey L. (1986) Ontogenesis of unit activity in the raphe dorsalis of the behaving kitten: Its relationship with the states of vigilance. Brain Research 366(1–2): 10–21.
    1. Agurell S, Holmstedt B, Lindgren JE. (1969) Metabolism of 5-methoxy-N,N dimethyltryptamine-14C in the rat. Biochemical Pharmacology 18(12): 2771–2781.
    1. Ahlborg U, Holmstedt B, Lindgren JE. (1968) Fate and metabolism of some hallucinogenic indolealkylamines. Advances in Pharmacology 6(Pt. B): 213–229.
    1. Ahlenius S, Larsson K. (1991) Opposite effects of 5-methoxy-N, N-di-methyl-tryptamine and 5-hydroxytryptophan on male rat sexual behavior. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 38(1): 201–205.
    1. Archer T, Ogren SO, Ross SB. (1982) Serotonin involvement in aversive conditioning: Reversal of the fear retention deficit by long-term p-chloroamphetamine but not p-chlorophenylalanine. Neuroscience Letters 34(1): 75–82.
    1. Barbeau H, Rossignol S. (1990) The effects of serotonergic drugs on the locomotor pattern and on cutaneous reflexes of the adult chronic spinal cat. Brain Research 514(1): 55–67.
    1. Barker SA, Littlefield-Chabaud MA, David C. (2001) Distribution of the hallucinogens N,N-dimethyltryptamine and 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine in rat brain following intraperitoneal injection: Application of a new solid-phase extraction LC–APcI–MS–MS–isotope dilution method. Journal of Chromatography B: Biomedical Sciences and Applications 751(1): 37–47.
    1. Barker SA, McIlhenny EH, Strassman R. (2012) A critical review of reports of endogenous psychedelic N, N-dimethyltryptamines in humans: 1955-2010. Drug Testing and Analysis 4(7–8): 617–635.
    1. Barrett FS, Bradstreet MP, Leoutsakos J-MS, et al.. (2016) The Challenging Experience Questionnaire: Characterization of challenging experiences with psilocybin mushrooms. Journal of Psychopharmacology 30(12): 1279–1295.
    1. Barrett FS, Johnson MW, Griffiths RR. (2015) Validation of the revised Mystical Experience Questionnaire in experimental sessions with psilocybin. Journal of Psychopharmacology 29(11): 1182–1190.
    1. Barsuglia J, Davis AK, Palmer R, et al.. (2018) Intensity of mystical experiences occasioned by 5-MeO-DMT and comparison with a prior psilocybin study. Frontiers in Psychology 9: 2459.
    1. Barsuglia JP, Polanco M, Palmer R, et al.. (2018) A case report SPECT study and theoretical rationale for the sequential administration of ibogaine and 5-MeO-DMT in the treatment of alcohol use disorder. Progress in Brain Research 242: 121–158.
    1. Beaton JM, Morris PE. (1984) Ontogeny of N, N-dimethyltryptamine and related indolealkylamine levels in neonatal rats. Mechanisms of Ageing and Development 25(3): 343–347.
    1. Bedard P, Pycock CJ. (1977) ‘Wet-dog’ shake behaviour in the rat: A possible quantitative model of central 5-hydroxytryptamine activity. Neuropharmacology 16(10): 663–670.
    1. Benington F, Morin RD, Clark LC. (1965) 5-methoxy-N, N-dimethyltryptamine, a possible endogenous psychotoxin. The Alabama Journal of Medical Sciences 2(4): 397–403.
    1. Berendsen HHG, Jenck F, Broekkamp CLE. (1989) Selective activation of 5HT1A receptors induces lower lip retraction in the rat. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 33(4): 821–827.
    1. Berge O, Chacho D, Hole K. (1983) Inhibitory effect of 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine on the synaptosomal uptake of 5-hydroxytryptamine. European Journal of Pharmacology 90(2–3): 293–296.
    1. Berge O-G. (1982) Effects of 5-HT receptor agonists and antagonists on a reflex response to radiant heat in normal and spinally transected rats. Pain 13(3): 253–266.
    1. Berge O-G, Hole K, Dahle H. (1980) Nociception is enhanced after low doses and reduced after high doses of the serotonin receptor agonist 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine. Neuroscience Letters 19(2): 219–223.
    1. Berger G, Mazière M, Marazano C, et al.. (1978) Carbon-11 labeling of the psychoactive drug O-methyl-bufotenine and its distribution in the animal organism. European Journal of Nuclear Medicine 3(2): 101–104.
    1. Blough BE, Landavazo A, Decker AM, et al.. (2014) Interaction of psychoactive tryptamines with biogenic amine transporters and serotonin receptor subtypes. Psychopharmacology 231(21): 4135–4144.
    1. Bogenschutz MP, Forcehimes AA, Pommy JA, et al.. (2015) Psilocybin-assisted treatment for alcohol dependence: A proof-of-concept study. Journal of Psychopharmacology 29(3): 289–299.
    1. Bogenschutz MP, Podrebarac SK, Duane JH, et al.. (2018) Clinical interpretations of patient experience in a trial of psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy for alcohol use disorder. Frontiers in Pharmacology 9: 100.
    1. Bourke C, Carrigan M, Dixon R. (1988) Experimental evidence that tryptamine alkaloids do not cause Phalaris aquatica sudden death syndrome in sheep. Australian Veterinary Journal 65(7): 218–220.
    1. Bourke C, Carrigan M, Dixon R. (1990) The pathogenesis of the nervous syndrome of Phalaris aquatica toxicity in sheep. Australian Veterinary Journal 67(10): 356–358.
    1. Bruno R, Matthews AJ, Dunn M, et al.. (2012) Emerging psychoactive substance use among regular ecstasy users in Australia. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 124(1–2): 19–25.
    1. Brush DE, Bird SB, Boyer EW. (2004) Monoamine oxidase inhibitor poisoning resulting from internet misinformation on illicit substances. Journal of Toxicology: Clinical Toxicology 42(2): 191–195.
    1. Canada Justice Laws (1996) Consolidated Federal Laws of Canada, Controlled Drugs and Substances Act (S.C. 1996, c. 19). Available at: (accessed 26 February 2021).
    1. Canal CE, Murnane KS. (2017) The serotonin 5-HT2C receptor and the non-addictive nature of classic hallucinogens. Journal of Psychopharmacology 31(1): 127–143.
    1. Carhart-Harris RL, Nutt DJ. (2010) User perceptions of the benefits and harms of hallucinogenic drug use: A web-based questionnaire study. Journal of Substance Use 15(4): 283–300.
    1. Carhart-Harris RL, Bolstridge M, Day CMJ, et al.. (2018) Psilocybin with psychological support for treatment-resistant depression: Six-month follow-up. Psychopharmacology 235(2): 399–408.
    1. Carhart-Harris RL, Bolstridge M, Rucker J, et al.. (2016) Psilocybin with psychological support for treatment-resistant depression: An open-label feasibility study. The Lancet Psychiatry 3(7): 619–627.
    1. Carlsson M, Eriksson E. (1986) A central serotonin receptor agonist, 8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino)tetralin, has different effects on prolactin secretion in male and female rats. Acta Pharmacologica et Toxicologica 58(4): 297–302.
    1. Castellanos JP, Woolley C, Bruno KA, et al.. (2020) Chronic pain and psychedelics: A review and proposed mechanism of action. Regional Anesthesia & Pain Medicine 45(7): 486–494.
    1. Cazala P, Garrigues AM. (1983) Effects of apomorphine, clonidine or 5-methoxy-NN-dimethyltryptamine on approach and escape components of lateral hypothalamic and mesencephalic central gray stimulation in two inbred strains of mice. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 18(1): 87–93.
    1. Christian ST, Benington F, Morin RD, et al.. (1975) Gas-liquid chromatographic separation and identification of biologically important indolealkylamines from human cerebrospinal fluid. Biochemical Medicine 14(2): 191–200.
    1. (2019) Safety of GH001 in Healthy Volunteers ( Identifier: NCT 04640831). Bethesda, MD: National Library of Medicine. Available at: (accessed 16 August 2021).
    1. (2021. a) Identifier: NCT 04698603 Clinical Study of GH001 in Depression. Bethesda, MD: National Library of Medicine. Available at: (accessed 16 August 2021).
    1. (2021. b) Identifier: NCT 05032833 Single Ascending Dose Study with 5-MeO-DMT in Healthy Subjects. Bethesda, MD: National Library of Medicine. Available at: (accessed 3 September 2021).
    1. Corbett L, Christian ST, Morin RD, et al.. (1978) Hallucinogenic N-methylated indolealkylamines in the cerebrospinal fluid of psychiatric and control populations. The British Journal of Psychiatry 132: 139–144.
    1. Critchley MAE, Handley SL. (1987) Effects in the X-maze anxiety model of agents acting at 5-HT1 and 5-HT2 receptors. Psychopharmacology 93(4): 7243.
    1. Dabiré H. (1991) Central 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) receptors in blood pressure regulation. Therapie 46(6): 421–429.
    1. Dabiré H, Cherqui C, Fournier B, et al.. (1987) Comparison of effects of some 5-HT1 agonists on blood pressure and heart rate of normotensive anaesthetized rats. European Journal of Pharmacology 140(3): 259–266.
    1. Dakic V, Minardi Nascimento J, Costa Sartore R, et al.. (2017) Short term changes in the proteome of human cerebral organoids induced by 5-MeO-DMT. Scientific Reports 7(1): 12779.
    1. Danysz W, Minor BG, Post C, et al.. (1986) Chronic treatment with antidepressant drugs and the analgesia induced by 5-methoxy-N, N-dimethyltryptamine: Attenuation by desipramine. Acta Pharmacologica et Toxicologica 59(2): 103–112.
    1. Davis AK, Averill LA, Sepeda ND, et al.. (2020) Psychedelic treatment for trauma-related psychological and cognitive impairment among US special operations forces veterans. Chronic Stress 4: 93956.
    1. Davis AK, Barsuglia JP, Lancelotta R, et al.. (2018) The epidemiology of 5-methoxy-N, N-Dimethyltryptamine (use Benefits consequences patterns of use subjective effects and reasons for consumption). Journal of Psychopharmacology 32(7): 779–792.
    1. Davis AK, So S, Lancelotta R, et al.. (2019) 5-methoxy-N, N-dimethyltryptamine (used in a naturalistic group setting is associated with unintended improvements in depression and anxiety). The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 45(2): 161–169.
    1. Derogatis LR. (2001) Brief Symptom Inventory 18: Administration, Scoring and Procedures Manual. NCS Pearson. Available at: (accessed 11 March 2021).
    1. Dickinson SL, Curzon G. (1986) 5-hydroxytryptamine-mediated behaviour in male and female rats. Neuropharmacology 25(7): 771–776.
    1. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) Department of Justice (2010) Schedules of controlled substances: Placement of 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine into Schedule I of the Controlled Substances Act: Final rule. Federal Register 75(243): 79296–79300.
    1. Duvvuri V, Risbrough VB, Kaye WH, et al.. (2009) 5-HT1A receptor activation is necessary for 5-MeODMT-dependent potentiation of feeding inhibition. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 93(3): 349–353.
    1. Egashira N, Mishima K, Katsurabayashi S, et al.. (2002) Involvement of 5-hydroxytryptamine neuronal system in D9-tetrahydrocannabinol-induced impairment of spatial memory. European Journal of Pharmacology 9: 221–229.
    1. Eide PK, Tjølsen A. (1988) Effects of serotonin receptor antagonists and agonists on the tail-flick response in mice involve altered tail-skin temperature. Neuropharmacology 27(9): 889–893.
    1. Eison AS, Wright RN. (1992) 5-HT1A and 5-HT2 receptors mediate discrete behaviors in the Mongolian Gerbil. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 43(1): 131–137.
    1. Erspamer V, Vitali T, Roseghini M, et al.. (1967) 5-methoxy- and 5-hydroxyindoles in the skin of Bufo alvarius. Biochemical Pharmacology 16(7): 1149–1164.
    1. Erowid (2021) Erowid 5-MeO-DMT vault. Available at: (accessed 1 March 2021).
    1. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) (2021) European drug report 2020. Available at: (accessed 1 March 2021).
    1. Evenden JL. (1994) The effect of 5-HT1A receptor agonists on locomotor activity in the guinea-pig. British Journal of Pharmacology 112(3): 861–866.
    1. Fantegrossi WE, Woods JH, Winger G. (2004) Transient reinforcing effects of phenylisopropylamine and indolealkylamine hallucinogens in rhesus monkeys. Behavioural Pharmacology 15(2): 149–157.
    1. Federal Register of Legislation (2016) Poisons standard, July. Available at: (accessed 28 May 2021).
    1. Fornal C, Auerbach S, Jacobs BL. (1985) Activity of serotonin-containing neurons in nucleus raphe magnus in freely moving cats. Experimental Neurology 88(3): 590–608.
    1. Fornal CA, Litto WJ, Metzler CW, et al.. (1994) Single-unit responses of serotonergic dorsal raphe neurons to 5-HT1A agonist and antagonist drug administration in behaving cats. The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 270(3): 1345–1358.
    1. Forsström T, Tuominen J, Karkkäinen J. (2001) Determination of potentially hallucinogenic N-dimethylated indoleamines in human urine by HPLC/ESI-MS-MS. Scandinavian Journal of Clinical and Laboratory Investigation 61(7): 547–556.
    1. Friedman E, Cooper TB, Dallob A. (1983) Effects of chronic antidepressant treatment on serotonin receptor activity in mice. European Journal of Pharmacology 89(1–2): 69–76.
    1. Gallagher CH, Koch JH, Moore RM, et al.. (1964) Toxicity of phalaris tuberosa for sheep. Nature 204: 542–545.
    1. Garcia-Romeu A, Davis AK, Erowid F, et al.. (2019) Cessation and reduction in alcohol consumption and misuse after psychedelic use. Journal of Psychopharmacology 33(9): 1088–1101.
    1. GDS (2020) Global drug survey 2020. Available at: (accessed 1 March 2021).
    1. Gessner PK, Page IH. (1962) Behavioral effects of 5-methoxy-N:N-dimethyltryptamine, other tryptamines, and LSD. American Journal of Physiology 203(1): 167–172.
    1. Gessner PK, Godse DD, Krull AH, et al.. (1968) Structure-activity relationships among 5-methoxy-N:N-dimethyltryptamine, 4-hydroxy-N:N-dimethyltryptamine (psilocin) and other substituted tryptamines. Life Sciences 7(5): 267–277.
    1. Gessner PK, McIsaac WM, Page IH. (1961) Pharmacological actions of some methoxyindolealkylamines. Nature 190(4771): 179–180.
    1. Gillin JC, Tinklenberg J, Stoff DM, et al.. (1976) 5-Methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine: Behavioral and toxicological effects in animals. Biological Psychiatry 11(3): 355–358.
    1. Glennon RA, Rosecrans JA, Young R, et al.. (1979) Hallucinogens as a discriminative stimuli: Generalisation of DOM to 5-methoxy-N, N-dimethyltryptamine stimulus. Life Sciences 24(11): 993–997.
    1. Glennon RA, Young R, Benington F, et al.. (1982. a) Hallucinogens as discriminative stimuli: A comparison of 4-OMe and 5-OMe DMT with their methylthio counterparts. Life Sciences 30(5): 465–467.
    1. Glennon RA, Young R, Rosecrans JA, et al.. (1980) Hallucinogenic agents as discriminative stimuli: A correlation with serotonin receptor affinities. Psychopharmacology 68(2): 155–158.
    1. Glennon RA, Young R, Rosecrans JA. (1982. b) Discriminative stimulus properties of DOM and several molecular modifications. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 16(4): 553–556.
    1. González-Maeso J, Weisstaub NV, Zhou M, et al.. (2007) Hallucinogens recruit specific cortical 5-HT2A receptor-mediated signaling pathways to affect behavior. Neuron 53(3): 439–452.
    1. Goodwin GM, DeSouza RJ, Wood AJ, et al.. (1986. a) Lithium decreases 5-HT1A and 5-HT2 receptor and α2-adrenoreceptor mediated function in mice. Psychopharmacology 90(4): 74065.
    1. Goodwin GM, De Souza RJ, Wood AJ, et al.. (1986. b) The enhancement by lithium of the 5-HT1A mediated serotonin syndrome produced by 8-OH-DPAT in the rat: Evidence for a post-synaptic mechanism. Psychopharmacology 90(4): 488–493.
    1. Grahame-Smith DG. (1971) Inhibitory effect of chlorpromazine on the syndrome of hyperactivity produced by l-tryptophan or 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine in rats treated with a monoamine oxidase inhibitor. British Journal of Pharmacology 43(4): 856–864.
    1. Griffiths RR, Johnson MW, Carducci MA, et al.. (2016) Psilocybin produces substantial and sustained decreases in depression and anxiety in patients with life-threatening cancer: A randomized double-blind trial. Journal of Psychopharmacology 30(12): 1181–1197.
    1. Grinspoon L, Bakalar JB. (1998) Psychedelic Drugs Reconsidered (2. Print. A Drug Policy Classic Reprint from The Lindesmith Center). New York: Lindesmith Center.
    1. Grob CS, Danforth AL, Chopra GS, et al.. (2011) Pilot study of psilocybin treatment for anxiety in patients with advanced-stage cancer. Archives of General Psychiatry 68(1): 71.
    1. Gu J, Strauss C, Crane C, et al.. (2016) Examining the factor structure of the 39-item and 15-item versions of the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire before and after mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for people with recurrent depression. Psychological Assessment 28(7): 791–802.
    1. Guchhait RB. (1976) Biogenesis of 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine in human pineal gland. Journal of Neurochemistry 26(1): 187–190.
    1. Gudelsky GA, Koenig JI, Meltzer HY. (1985) Altered responses to serotonergic agents in Fawn-Hooded rats. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 22(3): 489–492.
    1. Gudelsky GA, Koenig JI, Jackman H, et al.. (1986. a) Suppression of the hypo- and hyperthermic responses to 5-HT agonists following the repeated administration of monoamine oxidase inhibitors. Psychopharmacology 90(3): 79199.
    1. Gudelsky GA, Koenig JI, Meltzer HY. (1986. b) Thermoregulatory responses to serotonin (5-HT) receptor stimulation in the rat. Neuropharmacology 25(12): 1307–1313.
    1. Gummin DD, Mowry JB, Beuhler MC, et al.. (2020) 2019 Annual report of the American Association of Poison Control Centers’ National Poison Data System (NPDS): 37th Annual report. Clinical Toxicology 58(12): 1360–1541.
    1. Gurevich VV, Gurevich EV. (2004) The molecular acrobatics of arrestin activation. Trends in Pharmacological Sciences 25(2): 105–111.
    1. Halberstadt AL. (2016) Behavioral and pharmacokinetic interactions between monoamine oxidase inhibitors and the hallucinogen 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 143: 1–10.
    1. Halberstadt AL, Geyer MA. (2011) Multiple receptors contribute to the behavioral effects of indoleamine hallucinogens. Neuropharmacology 61(3): 364–381.
    1. Halberstadt AL, Buell MR, Masten VL, et al.. (2008) Modification of the effects of 5-methoxy-N, N-dimethyltryptamine on exploratory behavior in rats by monoamine oxidase inhibitors. Psychopharmacology 201(1): 55–66.
    1. Halberstadt AL, Koedood L, Powell SB, et al.. (2011) Differential contributions of serotonin receptors to the behavioral effects of indoleamine hallucinogens in mice. Journal of Psychopharmacology 25(11): 1548–1561.
    1. Halberstadt AL, Nichols DE, Geyer MA. (2012) Behavioral effects of α,α,β,β-tetradeutero-5-MeO-DMT in rats: Comparison with 5-MeO-DMT administered in combination with a monoamine oxidase inhibitor. Psychopharmacology 221(4): 709–718.
    1. Halpern JH, Lerner AG, Passie T. (2018) A review of hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD) and an exploratory study of subjects claiming symptoms of HPPD. Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences 36: 333–360.
    1. Harrison-Read PE. (1979) Evidence from behavioural reactions to fenfluramine, 5-hydroxytryptophan, and 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine for differential effects of short-term and long-term lithium on indoleaminergic mechanisms in rats. British Journal of Pharmacology 66(1): 144P–145P.
    1. Hasler F, Grimberg U, Benz MA, et al.. (2004) Acute psychological and physiological effects of psilocybin in healthy humans: A double-blind, placebo-controlled dose-effect study. Psychopharmacology 172(2): 145–156.
    1. Heinze WJ, Schlemmer RF, Tyler CB, et al.. (1983) The comparative behavioral effects of N,N-dimethyltryptamine and N,N-diethyltryptamine in primate dyads. Biological Psychiatry 18(7): 829–836.
    1. Heller B, Narasimhachari N, Spaide J, et al.. (1970) N-dimethylated indoleamines in blood of acute schizophrenics. Experientia 26(5): 503–504.
    1. Henry JD, Crawford JR. (2005) The short-form version of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21): Construct validity and normative data in a large non-clinical sample. The British Journal of Clinical Psychology 44(Pt. 2): 227–239.
    1. Heym J, Steinfels GF, Jacobs BL. (1982) Activity of serotonin-containing neurons in the nucleus raphe pallidus of freely moving cats. Brain Research 251(2): 259–276.
    1. Himwich HE, Jenkins RL, Fujimori M, et al.. (1972) A biochemical study of early infantile autism. Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia 2(2): 114–126.
    1. Hitt M, Ettinger DD. (1986) Toad toxicity. The New England Journal of Medicine 314(23): 1517–1518.
    1. Ho BT, McIsaac WM, An R, et al.. (1970) Biological activities of some 5-substituted N, N-dimethyltryptamines, α-methyltryptamines, and gramines. Psychopharmacologia 16(5): 385–394.
    1. Holmstedt B, Lindgren JE, Plowman T, et al.. (1980) Indole alkaloids in Amazonian Myristicaceae: Field and laboratory research. Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University 28(3): 215–234.
    1. Holze F, Duthaler U, Vizeli P, et al.. (2019) Pharmacokinetics and subjective effects of a novel oral LSD formulation in healthy subjects. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 85(7): 1474–1483.
    1. Home Office (2019) Controlled drugs list of most commonly encountered drugs currently controlled under the misuse of drugs legislation. Available at: (accessed 28 May 2021).
    1. Hoshino T, Shimodaira K. (1936) Über Die Synthese Des Bufotenin-Methyl-Äthers (5-Methoxy-N-Dimethyl-Tryptamin) Und Bufotenins (Synthesen In Der Indol-Gruppe. Xv). Bulletin of the Chemical Society of Japan 11(3): 221–224.
    1. Huszka L, Zabek DH, Doust JWL. (1976) Urinary excretion of N,N-dimethylated tryptamines in chronic schizophrenia: A review of the present status of the hypothesis. Canadian Psychiatric Association Journal 21(8): 541–546.
    1. Jacobs BL, Heym J, Rasmussen K. (1983) Raphe neurons: Firing rate correlates with size of drug response. European Journal of Pharmacology 90(2–3): 275–278.
    1. Jiang X-L, Shen H-W, Yu A-M. (2015) Potentiation of 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine-induced hyperthermia by harmaline and the involvement of activation of 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A receptors. Neuropharmacology 89: 342–351.
    1. Jiang X-L, Shen H-W, Yu A-M. (2016. a) Modification of 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine-induced hyperactivity by monoamine oxidase A inhibitor harmaline in mice and the underlying serotonergic mechanisms. Pharmacological Reports 68(3): 608–615.
    1. Jiang X-L, Shen H-W, Mager DE, et al.. (2013) Pharmacokinetic interactions between monoamine oxidase A inhibitor harmaline and 5-methoxy-N, N-dimethyltryptamine, and the impact of CYPD. Status Drug Metabolism and Disposition 41(5): 975–986.
    1. Jiang X-L, Shen H-W, Mager DE, et al.. (2016. b) Development of a mechanism-based pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic model to characterize the thermoregulatory effects of serotonergic drugs in mice. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica B 6(5): 492–503.
    1. Johnson M, Richards W, Griffiths R. (2008) Human hallucinogen research: Guidelines for safety. Journal of Psychopharmacology 22(6): 603–620.
    1. Johnson MW, Garcia-Romeu A, Cosimano MP, et al.. (2014) Pilot study of the 5-HT 2A R agonist psilocybin in the treatment of tobacco addiction. Journal of Psychopharmacology 28(11): 983–992.
    1. Johnson MW, Garcia-Romeu A, Johnson PS, et al.. (2017) An online survey of tobacco smoking cessation associated with naturalistic psychedelic use. Journal of Psychopharmacology 31(7): 841–850.
    1. Johnson MW, Griffiths RR, Hendricks PS, et al.. (2018) The abuse potential of medical psilocybin according to the 8 factors of the Controlled Substances Act. Neuropharmacology 142: 143–166.
    1. Kaumann AJ, Levy FO. (2006) 5-hydroxytryptamine receptors in the human cardiovascular system. Pharmacology & Therapeutics 111(3): 674–706.
    1. Kodama T, Mushiake H, Shima K, et al.. (1989) Slow fluctuations of single unit activities of hippocampal and thalamic neurons in cats – II: Role of serotonin on the stability of neuronal activities. Brain Research 487(1): 35–44.
    1. Kofman O, Levin U. (1995) Myo-inositol attenuates the enhancement of the serotonin syndrome by lithium. Psychopharmacology 118(2): 213–218.
    1. Kolbeck SC, Steers WD. (1992) Neural regulation of the vas deferens in the rat: An electrophysiological analysis. American Journal of Physiology-regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 263(2): R331–R338.
    1. Krebs-Thomson K, Ruiz EM, Masten V, et al.. (2006) The roles of 5-HT1A and 5-HT2 receptors in the effects of 5-MeO-DMT on locomotor activity and prepulse inhibition in rats. Psychopharmacology 189(3): 319–329.
    1. Kurrasch-Orbaugh DM, Watts VJ, Barker EL, et al.. (2003) Serotonin 5-hydroxytryptamine 2A receptor-coupled phospholipase C and phospholipase A2 signaling pathways have different receptor reserves. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 304(1): 229–237.
    1. Lancelotta RL, Davis AK. (2020) Use of benefit enhancement strategies among 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT) users: Associations with mystical, challenging, and enduring effects. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 52(3): 273–281.
    1. Larson AA. (1984) Acute and chronic effects of LSD and 5-MeODMT on raphe-evoked dorsal root potentials in the cat. Life Sciences 34(12): 1193–1201.
    1. Lima da Cruz RV, Moulin TC, Petiz LL, et al.. (2018) A single dose of 5-MeO-DMT stimulates cell proliferation, neuronal survivability, morphological and functional changes in adult mice ventral dentate gyrus. Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience 11: 312.
    1. Löscher W, Witte U, Fredow G, et al.. (1990) Pharmacodynamic effects of serotonin (5-HT) receptor ligands in pigs: Stimulation of 5-HT2 receptors induces malignant hyperthermia. Naunyn-schmiedeberg’s Archives of Pharmacology 341(6): 483–493.
    1. Lucki I, Frazer A. (1982) Prevention of the serotonin syndrome in rats by repeated administration of monoamine oxidase inhibitors but not tricyclic antidepressants. Psychopharmacology 77(3): 205–211.
    1. Lucki I, Nobler MS, Frazer A. (1984) Differential actions of serotonin antagonists on two behavioral models of serotonin receptor activation in the rat. The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 228(1): 133–139.
    1. Martin P, Frances H, Simon P. (1985) Dissociation of head twitches and tremors during the study of interactions with 5-hydroxytryptophan in mice. Journal of Pharmacological Methods 13(3): 193–200.
    1. Matsumoto K, Mizowaki M, Takayama H, et al.. (1997) Suppressive effect of mitragynine on the 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine-induced head-twitch response in mice. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 57(1–2): 319–323.
    1. Matthews WD, Smith CD. (1980) Pharmacological profile of a model for central serotonin receptor activation. Life Sciences 26(17): 1397–1403.
    1. Meltzer HY, Fessler RG, Simonovic M, et al.. (1978) Stimulation of rat prolactin secretion by indolealkylamine hallucinogens. Psychopharmacology 56(3): 255–259.
    1. Metz A, Heal DJ. (1986) In mice repeated administration of electroconvulsive shock or desmethylimipramine produces rapid alterations in 5-HT2-mediated head-twitch responses and cortical 5-HT2 receptor number. European Journal of Pharmacology 126(1–2): 159–162.
    1. Metzner R. (2013) The Toad and the Jaguar: A Field Report of Underground Research on a Visionary Medicine: Bufo Alvarius and 5-Methoxy-dimethyltryptamine (1st edn). Berkeley, CA: Regent Press.
    1. Miles DH, Ly AM, Randle SA, et al.. (1987) Alkaloidal insect antifeedants from Virola calophylla warb. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 35(5): 794–797.
    1. Millière R, Carhart-Harris RL, Roseman L, et al.. (2018) Psychedelics, meditation, and self-consciousness. Frontiers in Psychology 9: 475.
    1. Moser PC, Redfern PH. (1985) Circadian variation in behavioural responses to central 5-HT receptor stimulation in the mouse. Psychopharmacology 86(1–2): 223–227.
    1. Moser PC, Redfern PH. (1988) The effect of benzodiazepines on the 5-HT agonist-induced head-twitch response in mice. European Journal of Pharmacology 151(2): 223–231.
    1. Most A. (1984) Bufo Alvarius: The Psychedelic Toad of the Sonoran Desert. Denton, TX: Venom Press.
    1. Nagai F, Nonaka R, Satoh Hisashi Kamimura K. (2007) The effects of non-medically used psychoactive drugs on monoamine neurotransmission in rat brain. European Journal of Pharmacology 559(2–3): 132–137.
    1. Narasimhachari N, Avalos J, Fujimori M, et al.. (1972) Studies of drug-free schizophrenics and controls. Biological Psychiatry 5(3): 311–318.
    1. Narasimhachari N, Baumann P, Pak HS, et al.. (1974) Gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric identification of urinary bufotenin and dimethyltryptamine in drug-free chronic schizophrenic patients. Biological Psychiatry 8(3): 293–305.
    1. Narasimhachari N, Heller B, Spaide J, et al.. (1971. a) N, N-dimethylated indoleamines in blood. Biological Psychiatry 3(1): 21–23.
    1. Narasimhachari N, Heller B, Spaide J, et al.. (1971. b) Urinary studies of schizophrenics and controls. Biological Psychiatry 3(1): 9–20.
    1. Nash JF, Meltzer HY, Gudelsky GA. (1989) Selective cross-tolerance to 5-HT1A and 5-HT2 receptor-mediated temperature and corticosterone responses. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 33(4): 781–785.
    1. National Programme on Substance Abuse Deaths (NPSAD) (2021) National Programme on Substance Abuse Deaths. Available at: (accessed 8 March 2021).
    1. New Zealand Legislation (1975) New Zealand Legislation Misuse of Drugs Act, Schedule 1, Class A controlled drugs. Available at: (accessed 28 May 2021).
    1. Nielsen CK. (1998) Head and whole-body jerking in guinea pigs are differentially modulated by 5-HT1A, 5-HT1B/1D and 5-HT2A receptor antagonists. European Journal of Pharmacology 361(2–3): 185–190.
    1. Nielsen EB. (1985) Discriminative stimulus properties of lysergic acid diethylamide in the monkey. The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 234(1): 244–249.
    1. Noorani T, Garcia-Romeu A, Swift TC, et al.. (2018) Psychedelic therapy for smoking cessation: Qualitative analysis of participant accounts. Journal of Psychopharmacology 32(7): 756–769.
    1. Nutt D, Erritzoe D, Carhart-Harris R. (2020) Psychedelic psychiatry’s brave new world. Cell 181(1): 24–28.
    1. Office for National Statistics (2020) Deaths related to drug poisoning by selected substances. 14 October. Available at: (accessed 12 March 2021).
    1. O’Hare E, Tierney KJ, Shephard RA. (1991) Cyclic-ratio schedule analysis of a serotonin agonist and depletor on consummatory behaviour. Physiology & Behavior 49(2): 331–334.
    1. Ootsuka Y, Nalivaiko E, Blessing WW. (2004) Spinal 5-HT2A receptors regulate cutaneous sympathetic vasomotor outflow in rabbits and rats; relevance for cutaneous vasoconstriction elicited by MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, ‘Ecstasy’) and its reversal by clozapine. Brain Research 1014(1–2): 34–44.
    1. Ott J. (1996) Pharmacotheon: Entheogenic Drugs, Their Plant Sources and History (2nd edn). Kennewick, WA: Natural Products Co.
    1. Ott J. (2001) Pharmepéna-psychonautics: Human intranasal, sublingual and oral pharmacology of 5-methoxy-N, N-dimethyl-tryptamine. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 33(4): 403–407.
    1. Pachter IJ, Zacharias DE, Ribeiro O. (1959) Indole alkaloids of Acer saccharinum (The Silver Maple), Dictyoloma incanescens, Piptadenia colubrina, and Mimosa hostilis. The Journal of Organic Chemistry 24(9): 1285–1287.
    1. Palamar JJ, Acosta P. (2020) A qualitative descriptive analysis of effects of psychedelic phenethylamines and tryptamines. Human Psychopharmacology 35(1): e2719.
    1. Palamar JJ, Le A. (2019) Use of new and uncommon synthetic psychoactive drugs among a nationally representative sample in the United States, 2005–2017. Human Psychopharmacology 34(2): e2690.
    1. Pavone F, Fagioli S, Castellano C. (1993) Effects of oxotremorine on inhibitory avoidance behaviour in two inbred strains of mice: Interaction with 5-methoxy-NN-dimethyltriptamine. Psychopharmacology 112(2–3): 249–252.
    1. PDSP Database (2021) PDSP database-UNC. Available at: (accessed 26 February 2021).
    1. Pochettino ML, Cortella AR, Ruiz M. (1999) Hallucinogenic snuff from Northwestern Argentina: Microscopical identification of Anadenanthera colubrina var. cebil (fabaceae) in powdered archaeological material. Economic Botany 53(2): 127–132.
    1. Pokorny T, Preller KH, Kraehenmann R, et al.. (2016) Modulatory effect of the 5-HT1A agonist buspirone and the mixed non-hallucinogenic 5-HT1A/2A agonist ergotamine on psilocybin-induced psychedelic experience. European Neuropsychopharmacology 26(4): 756–766.
    1. PubChem (2021) N, N-dimethyl-5-methoxytryptamine. Available at: (accessed 26 February 2021).
    1. Quartermain D, Judge ME, Leo P. (1988) Attenuation of forgetting by pharmacological stimulation of aminergic neurotransmitter systems. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 30(1): 77–81.
    1. Rasmussen K, Heym J, Jacobs BL. (1984) Activity of serotonin-containing neurons in nucleus centralis superior of freely moving cats. Experimental Neurology 83(2): 302–317.
    1. Rätsch C. (2005) The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Plants: Ethnopharmacology and Its Applications. Rochester, VT: Park Street Press.
    1. Ray TS. (2010) Psychedelics and the human receptorome. PLoS ONE 5(2): e9019.
    1. Rényi L. (1986. a) The effects of monoamine oxidase inhibitors on the ejaculatory response induced by 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine in the rat. British Journal of Pharmacology 88(4): 827–835.
    1. Rényi L. (1986. b) The effect of selective 5-hydroxytryptamine uptake inhibitors on 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine-induced ejaculation in the rat. British Journal of Pharmacology 87(4): 639–648.
    1. Riceberg LJ, Vunakis HV. (1978) Determination of N,N-dimethylindolealkylamines in plasma, blood and urine extracts by radioimmunoassay and high pressure liquid chromatography. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 206(1): 158–166.
    1. Richter A, Löscher W. (1995) Behavioural response to pharmacologic manipulation of serotonin receptors in the genetically dystonic hamster. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 52(4): 655–665.
    1. Riga MS, Bortolozzi A, Campa L, et al.. (2016) The serotonergic hallucinogen 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine disrupts cortical activity in a regionally-selective manner via 5-HT 1A and 5-HT 2A receptors. Neuropharmacology 101: 370–378.
    1. Riga MS, Lladó-Pelfort L, Artigas F, et al.. (2018) The serotonin hallucinogen 5-MeO-DMT alters cortico-thalamic activity in freely moving mice: Regionally-selective involvement of 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A receptors. Neuropharmacology 142: 219–230.
    1. Riga MS, Soria G, Tudela R, et al.. (2014) The natural hallucinogen 5-MeO-DMT, component of Ayahuasca, disrupts cortical function in rats: Reversal by antipsychotic drugs. The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology 17(08): 1269–1282.
    1. Rigdon C, Weatherspoon K. (1992) 5-hydroxytryptaminea receptor agonists block prepulse inhibition of acoustic startle reflex. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 263(2): 486–493.
    1. Romano AG, Quinn JL, Li L, et al.. (2010) Intrahippocampal LSD accelerates learning and desensitizes the 5-HT2A receptor in the rabbit, Romano et al. Psychopharmacology 212(3): 441–448.
    1. Ross S, Bossis A, Guss J, et al.. (2016) Rapid and sustained symptom reduction following psilocybin treatment for anxiety and depression in patients with life-threatening cancer: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Psychopharmacology 30(12): 1165–1180.
    1. Roth BL. (2007) Drugs and valvular heart disease. The New England Journal of Medicine 356(1): 6–9.
    1. Roth BL, Lopez E, Patel S, et al.. (2000) The multiplicity of serotonin receptors: Uselessly diverse molecules or an embarrassment of riches? The Neuroscientist 6(4): 252–262.
    1. Rothman RB, Baumann MH, Savage JE, et al.. (2000) Evidence for possible involvement of 5-HT(2B) receptors in the cardiac valvulopathy associated with fenfluramine and other serotonergic medications. Circulation 102(23): 2836–2841.
    1. Rucker JJH, Iliff J, Nutt DJ. (2018) Psychiatry & the psychedelic drugs: Past, present & future. Neuropharmacology 142: 200–218.
    1. Sánchez C, Arnt J, Hyttel J, et al.. (1993) The role of serotonergic mechanisms in inhibition of isolation-induced aggression in male mice. Psychopharmacology 110(1–2): 53–59.
    1. Sauras Quetcuti RB, Farre A, Mateu G, et al.. (2019) A psychotic episode after ayahuasca and secretion of Bufo alvarius toad consumption: A case report. Institute of neuropsychiatry and addictions INAD, Parc de Salut Mar, 2019. Available at:
    1. Schlemmer RF, Davis JM. (1981) Evidence for dopamine mediation of submissive gestures in the stumptail Macaque monkey. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 14: 95–102.
    1. Schlemmer RF, Davis JM. (1986) A primate model for the study of hallucinogens. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 24(2): 381–392.
    1. Schlemmer RF, Narasimhachari N, Thompson VD, et al.. (1977) The effect of a hallucinogen, 5-methoxy N,N-dimethyltryptamine, on primate social behavior. Communications in Psychopharmacology 1(2): 105–118.
    1. Schmid CL, Bohn LM. (2010) Serotonin, but not N-methyltryptamines, activates the serotonin 2A receptor via a -arrestin2/Src/Akt signaling complex in vivo. Journal of Neuroscience 30(40): 13513–13524.
    1. Schreiber R, de Vry J. (1993) Studies on the neuronal circuits involved in the discriminative stimulus effects of 5-hydroxytryptamine 1A receptor agonists in the rat. The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 265(2): 572–579.
    1. Schultes R, Hofmann A. (1980) The Botany and Chemistry of Hallucinogens. Springfield: Charles C Thomas Publisher.
    1. Schultes RE, Hofmann A, Rätsch C. (2001) Plants of the Gods: Their Sacred, Healing, and Hallucinogenic Powers (Rev. and expanded edn). Rochester, VT: Healing Arts Press.
    1. Seeman G, Brown GM. (1985) Indolealkylamines and prolactin secretion a structure-activity study in the central nervous system of the rat. Neuropharmacology 24(12): 1195–1200.
    1. Sepeda ND, Clifton JM, Doyle LY, et al.. (2019) Inhaled 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine: Supportive context associated with positive acute and enduring effects. Journal of Psychedelic Studies 4(2): 114–122.
    1. Sexton JD, Nichols CD, Hendricks PS. (2020) Population survey data informing the therapeutic potential of classic and novel phenethylamine, tryptamine, and lysergamide psychedelics. Frontiers in Psychiatry 10: 896.
    1. Shen H-W, Jiang X-L, Yu A-M. (2009) Development of a LC–MS/MS method to analyze 5-methoxy-N, N-dimethyltryptamine and bufotenine: Application to pharmacokinetic study. Bioanalysis 1(1): 87–95.
    1. Shen H-W, Jiang X-L, Yu A-M. (2011) Nonlinear pharmacokinetics of 5-methoxy-N, N-dimethyltryptamine in mice. Drug Metabolism and Disposition 39(7): 1227–1234.
    1. Shen H-W, Jiang X-LC, Winter J, et al.. (2010. a) Psychedelic 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine: Metabolism, pharmacokinetics, drug interactions, and pharmacological actions. Current Drug Metabolism 11(8): 659–666.
    1. Shen H-W, Wu C, Jiang X-L, et al.. (2010. b) Effects of monoamine oxidase inhibitor and cytochrome P450 2D6 status on 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine metabolism and pharmacokinetics. Biochemical Pharmacology 80(1): 122–128.
    1. Shephard RA, Broadhurst PL. (1982) Effects of diazepam and of serotonin agonists on hyponeophagia in rats. Neuropharmacology 21(4): 337–340.
    1. Shephard RA, Broadhurst PL. (1983) Hyponeophagia in the Roman rat strains: Effects of 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine, diazepam, methysergide and the stereoisomers of propranolol. European Journal of Pharmacology 95(3–4): 177–184.
    1. Shulgin AT, Shulgin A. (1997) Tihkal: The Continuation. Berkeley, CA: Transform press.
    1. Sills MA, Lucki I, Frazer A. (1985) Development of selective tolerance to the serotonin behavioral syndrome and suppression of locomotor activity after repeated administration of either 5-MeODMT or mCPP. Life Sciences 36(26): 2463–2469.
    1. Simonovic M, Meltzer HY. (1979) Repeated administration of 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine to male rats potentiates stimulation of prolactin secretion by serotonin agonists. European Journal of Pharmacology 58(4): 399–405.
    1. Simonovic M, Meltzer HY. (1983) Biphasic effect of 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine on rat prolactin secretion. Brain Research 272(2): 269–275.
    1. Singleton C, Marsden CA. (1981) Circadian variation in the head twitch response produced by 5-methoxy-N1,N1-dimethyltryptamine and p-chloroamphetamine in the mouse. Psychopharmacology 74(2): 173–176.
    1. Sitaram BR, McLeod WR. (1990) Observations on the metabolism of the psychotomimetic indolealkylamines: Implications for future clinical studies. Biological Psychiatry 28(10): 841–848.
    1. Sitaram BR, Lockett L, Blackman GL, et al.. (1987. a) Urinary excretion of 5-methoxy-N, N-dimethyltryptamine, N,N-dimethyltryptamine and their N-oxides in the rat. Biochemical Pharmacology 36(13): 2235–2237.
    1. Sitaram BR, Lockett L, McLeish M, et al.. (1987. b) Gas chromatographic: Mass spectroscopic characterisation of the psychotomimetic indolealkylamines and their in vivo metabolites. Journal of Chromatography B: Biomedical Sciences and Applications 422: 13–23.
    1. Sitaram BR, Lockett L, Talomsin R, et al.. (1987. c) In vivo metabolism of 5-methoxy-N, N-dimethyltryptamine and N,N-dimethyltryptamine in the rat. Biochemical Pharmacology 36(9): 1509–1512.
    1. Sitaram BR, Talomsin R, Blackman GL, et al.. (1987. d) Study of metabolism of psychotomimetic indolealkylamines by rat tissue extracts using liquid chromatography. Biochemical Pharmacology 36(9): 1503–1508.
    1. Sklerov J, Levine B, Moore KA, et al.. (2005) A fatal intoxication following the ingestion of 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine in an ayahuasca preparation. Journal of Analytical Toxicology 29(8): 838–841.
    1. Smith LM, Peroutka SJ. (1986) Differential effects of 5-hydroxytryptamine 1A selective drugs on the 5-HT behavioral syndrome. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 24(6): 1513–1519.
    1. Smythies JR, Morin RD, Brown GB. (1979) Identification of dimethyltryptamine and O-methylbufotenin in human cerebrospinal fluid by combined gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Biological Psychiatry 14(3): 549–556.
    1. Spencer DG, Glaser T, Traber J. (1987) Serotonin receptor subtype mediation of the interoceptive discriminative stimuli induced by 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine. Psychopharmacology 93(2): 158–166.
    1. Squires RF. (1975) Evidence that 5-Methoxy-N, N-dimethyltryptamine is a specific substrate for MAO-A in the rat: Implications for the indoleamine dependent behavioural syndrome. Journal of Neurochemistry 24(1): 47–50.
    1. Stoff DM, GoreLick DA, Bozewicz T, et al.. (1978) The indole hallucinogens, N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) and 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT), have different effects from mescaline on rat shuttlebox avoidance. Neuropharmacology 17(12): 1035–1040.
    1. Stolz JF, Marsden CA, Middlemiss DN. (1983) Effect of chronic antidepressant treatment and subsequent withdrawal on [3H]-5-hydroxytryptamine and [3H]-spiperone binding in rat frontal cortex and serotonin receptor mediated behaviour. Psychopharmacology 80(2): 150–155.
    1. Substance Abuse Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) (2021. a) National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Concatenated Public Use File (2002 to 2019). Rockville, MD: Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality, SAMHSA. Available at:
    1. Substance Abuse Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) (2021. b) Drug Abuse Warning Network (2011): National Estimates of Drug-Related Emergency Department Visits. HHS Publication No. (SMA) 13-4760, DAWN Series D-39. Rockville, MD: SAMHSA. Available at: ; ;
    1. Suzuki O, Katsumata Y, Oya M. (1981) Characterization of eight biogenic indoleamines as substrates for type A and type B monoamine oxidase. Biochemical Pharmacology 30(11): 1353–1358.
    1. Szabo A, Kovacs A, Frecska E, et al.. (2014) Psychedelic N,N-dimethyltryptamine and 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine modulate innate and adaptive inflammatory responses through the sigma-1 receptor of human monocyte-derived dendritic cells. PLoS ONE 9(8): e106533.
    1. Tanimukai H. (1967) Modifications of paper and thin layer chromatographic methods to increase sensitivity for detecting n-methylated indoleamines in urine. Journal of Chromatography 30(1): 155–163.
    1. Tanimukai H, Ginther R, Spaide J, et al.. (1970) Detection of psychotomimetic N,N-dimethylated indoleamines in the urine of four schizophrenic patients. The British Journal of Psychiatry 117(539): 421–430.
    1. Timmermann C, Roseman L, Schartner M, et al.. (2019) Neural correlates of the DMT experience assessed with multivariate EEG. Scientific Reports 9(1): 51974.
    1. Torres CM, Repke DB. (2006) Anadenanthera: Visionary Plant of Ancient South America. New York: Haworth Herbal Press.
    1. Tricklebank MD, Forler C, Middlemiss DN, et al.. (1985) Subtypes of the 5-HT receptor mediating the behavioural responses to 5-methoxy-N, N-dimethyltryptamine in the rat. European Journal of Pharmacology 117(1): 15–24.
    1. Trout K. (2007) Trout’s Notes on Some Simple Tryptamines: A Brief Overview & Resource Compendium. Mydriatic Productions.
    1. Trulson ME, Jacobs BL. (1979) Effects of 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine on behavior and raphe unit activity in freely moving cats. European Journal of Pharmacology 54(1–2): 43–50.
    1. Trulson ME, Keltch GF. (1985) Development of tolerance to repeated administration of 5-methoxy-N, N-dimethyltryptamine in rats. European Journal of Pharmacology 108(1): 33–37.
    1. Trulson ME, MacKenzie RG. (1981) Subsensitivity to 5-hydroxytryptamine in agonists occurs in streptozocindiabetic rats with no change in [3H]-5-HT receptor binding. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology 33(1): 472–474.
    1. Trulson ME, Crisp T, Trulson VM. (1984. a) Activity of serotonin-containing nucleus centralis superior (raphe medianus) neurons in freely moving cats. Experimental Brain Research 54(1): 816.
    1. Trulson ME, Preussler DW, Trulson VM. (1984. b) Differential effects of hallucinogenic drugs on the activity of serotonin-containing neurons in the nucleus centralis superior and nucleus raphe pallidus in freely moving cats. The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 228(1): 94–102.
    1. Tyler V, Gröger D. (1964) Investigation of the alkaloids of Amanita species 1-II: Amanita citrina and Amanita porphyria. Planta Medica 12(04): 397–402.
    1. United Nations Convention on Psychotropic Substances (1971) United Nations Convention on Psychotropic Substances. Available at: (accessed 27 August 2019).
    1. United Nations Office on Drugs Crime (2020) World drug report. Available at: (accessed 1 March 2021).
    1. Urban JD, Clarke WP, von Zastrow M, et al.. (2007) Functional selectivity and classical concepts of quantitative pharmacology. The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 320(1): 1–13.
    1. Uthaug MV, Lancelotta R, Ortiz Bernal AM, et al.. (2020. a) A comparison of reactivation experiences following vaporization and intramuscular injection (IM) of synthetic 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT) in a naturalistic setting. Journal of Psychedelic Studies 4: 104–113.
    1. Uthaug MV, Lancelotta R, Szabo A, et al.. (2020. b) Prospective examination of synthetic 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine inhalation: Effects on salivary IL-6, cortisol levels, affect, and non-judgment. Psychopharmacology 237(3): 773–785.
    1. Uthaug MV, Lancelotta R, van Oorsouw K, et al.. (2019) A single inhalation of vapor from dried toad secretion containing 5-methoxy-N, N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT) in a naturalistic setting is related to sustained enhancement of satisfaction with life, mindfulness-related capacities, and a decrement of psychopathological symptoms. Psychopharmacology 236(9): 2653–2666.
    1. Van den Buuse M, Ruimschotel E, Martin S, et al.. (2011) Enhanced effects of amphetamine but reduced effects of the hallucinogen, 5-MeO-DMT, on locomotor activity in 5-HT1A receptor knockout mice: Implications for schizophrenia. Neuropharmacology 61(1–2): 209–216.
    1. Wada Y, Hasegawa H, Nakamura M, et al.. (1992) Behavioral and electroencephalographic effects of a serotonin receptor agonist (5-methoxy-N, N-dimethyltryptamine) in a feline model of photosensitive epilepsy. Neuroscience Letters 138(1): 115–118.
    1. Wallach JV. (2009) Endogenous hallucinogens as ligands of the trace amine receptors: A possible role in sensory perception. Medical Hypotheses 72(1): 91–94.
    1. Walters JK, Sheard MH, Davis M. (1978) Effects of N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) and 5-methoxy-N, N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeODMT) on shock elicited fighting in rats. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 9(1): 87–90.
    1. Weil AT, Davis W. (1994) Bufo alvarius: A potent hallucinogen of animal origin. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 41(1–2): 1–8.
    1. Weston NM, Gibbs D, Bird CIV, et al.. (2020) Historic psychedelic drug trials and the treatment of anxiety disorders. Depression and Anxiety 37: 1261–1279.
    1. Winne J, Boerner BC, Malfatti T, et al.. (2020) Anxiety-like behavior induced by salicylate depends on age and can be prevented by a single dose of 5-MeO-DMT. Experimental Neurology 326: 113175.
    1. Winter J. (1999) The acute effects of monoamine reuptake inhibitors on the stimulus effects of hallucinogens. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 63(3): 507–513.
    1. Winter JC, Amorosi DJ, Rice KC, et al.. (2011) Stimulus control by 5-methoxy-N, N-dimethyltryptamine in wild-type and CYP2D6-humanized mice. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 99(3): 311–315.
    1. Winter JC, Petti DT. (1987) The effects of 8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino)tetralin and other serotonergic agonists on performance in a radial maze: A possible role for 5-HT1A receptors in memory. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 27(4): 625–628.
    1. Winter JC, Filipink RA, Timineri D, et al.. (2000) The paradox of 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 65(1): 75–82.
    1. Yamazaki J. (1992) Stimulatory and inhibitory effects of serotonergic hallucinogens on spinal mono-and polysynaptic reflex pathways in the rat. Neuropharmacology 31(7): 635–642.
    1. Yanagita T. (1986) Intravenous self-administration of (-)-cathinone and 2-amino-1-(2,5-dimethoxy-4-methyl)phenylpropane in rhesus monkeys. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 17(2–3): 135–141.
    1. Young R, Rosecrans JA, Glennon RA. (1982) Comparative discriminative stimulus effects of 5-methoxy-N, N-dimethyltryptamine and LSD. Life Sciences 30(24): 2057–2062.
    1. Yu A-M, Idle JR, Herraiz T, et al.. (2003) Screening for endogenous substrates reveals that CYP2D6 is a 5-methoxyindolethylamine O-demethylase. Pharmacogenetics 13(6): 307–319.

Source: PubMed

스폰서 및 공동 작업자

건강 상태

약물 개입

3
구독하다