Plant-Dominant Low-Protein Diet for Conservative Management of Chronic Kidney Disease

Abstract

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) affects >10% of the adult population. Each year, approximately 120,000 Americans develop end-stage kidney disease and initiate dialysis, which is costly and associated with functional impairments, worse health-related quality of life, and high early-mortality rates, exceeding 20% in the first year. Recent declarations by the World Kidney Day and the U.S. Government Executive Order seek to implement strategies that reduce the burden of kidney failure by slowing CKD progression and controlling uremia without dialysis. Pragmatic dietary interventions may have a role in improving CKD outcomes and preventing or delaying dialysis initiation. Evidence suggests that a patient-centered plant-dominant low-protein diet (PLADO) of 0.6–0.8 g/kg/day composed of >50% plant-based sources, administered by dietitians trained in non-dialysis CKD care, is promising and consistent with the precision nutrition. The scientific premise of the PLADO stems from the observations that high protein diets with high meat intake not only result in higher cardiovascular disease risk but also higher CKD incidence and faster CKD progression due to increased intraglomerular pressure and glomerular hyperfiltration. Meat intake increases production of nitrogenous end-products, worsens uremia, and may increase the risk of constipation with resulting hyperkalemia from the typical low fiber intake. A plant-dominant, fiber-rich, low-protein diet may lead to favorable alterations in the gut microbiome, which can modulate uremic toxin generation and slow CKD progression, along with reducing cardiovascular risk. PLADO is a heart-healthy, safe, flexible, and feasible diet that could be the centerpiece of a conservative and preservative CKD-management strategy that challenges the prevailing dialysis-centered paradigm.

Keywords: plant-dominant; low-protein; dietary protein intake; glomerular hyperfiltration.

Conflict of interest statement

K. Kalantar-Zadeh has received honoraria and/or support from Abbott, Abbvie, ACI Clinical (Cara Therapeutics), Akebia, Alexion, Amgen, Ardelyx, ASN (American Society of Nephrology), Astra-Zeneca, Aveo, BBraun, Chugai, Cytokinetics, Daiichi, DaVita, Fresenius, Genentech, Haymarket Media, Hofstra Medical School, IFKF (International Federation of Kidney Foundations), ISH (International Society of Hemodialysis), International Society of Renal Nutrition & Metabolism (ISRNM), JSDT (Japanese Society of Dialysis Therapy), Hospira, Kabi, Keryx, Kissei, Novartis, OPKO, NIH (National Institutes of Health), NKF (National Kidney Foundations), Pfizer, Regulus, Relypsa, Resverlogix, Dr Schaer, Sandoz, Sanofi, Shire, VA (Veterans’ Affairs), Vifor, UpToDate, ZS-Pharma. No relevant sources of conflict of interest have been declared by other authors.

Figures

Figure 1

Effects of a plant-dominant low-protein diet on afferent arteriole contraction leading to reduced intra-glomerular pressure and nephron longevity (adapted from Kalantar-Zadeh and Fouque, N Engl J Med 2017) [25]..

Figure 2

Meta-analysis of the randomized controlled trials with low protein diet suggesting efficacy of diet in lowering the risk of kidney failure. This meta-analysis includes six (out of 16) randomized control trials of low protein diet (adapted from Rhee et al., J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle 2018) [28].

Figure 3

Overview of the plant-dominant low-protein diet (PLADO) for nutritional management of CKD, based on a total dietary intake of 0.6–0.8 g/kg/day with >50% plant-based sources, preferentially unprocessed foods, relatively low dietary sodium intake 4 g/day if no edema occurs with well controlled hypertension), higher dietary fiber of at least 25–30 g/day, and adequate dietary energy intake of 30–35 Cal/kg/day. Weight is based on the ideal body weight. Note that serum B12 should be monitored after three years of vegan dieting.

Figure 4

An algorithm and steps for the approach to the nutritional management of patients with CKD. Note that in addition to direct dietary assessments, periodic 24-h urine collections should be used to estimate dietary protein, sodium, and potassium intakes in order to assess adherence to dietary recommendations (adapted from the Supplementary-Appendix-Figure S4. Under Kalantar-Zadeh and Fouque, N Engl J Med. 2017) [25]. * Comprehensive metabolic and glycemic panels include electrolytes, SUN, creatinine, glucose, hemoglobin A1c, liver function tests, and the lipid panel. † The full equation is: DPI = 6:25 × UUN + 0:03 × IBW † Add the amount of daily proteinuria in grams if proteinuria >5 g/d. Calculate the creatinine index (24-hr urine creatinine divided by actual weight or IBW if obese) and compare it to the expected value of 1–1.5 g/kg/d for women and 1.5–2 g/kg/day for men. ‡ Dietary supplements can be added to provide additional sources of energy and/or protein including—but not limited to—CKD specific supplements, essential amino-acids, or keto-analogues (ketoacids) of amino-acids. ¶ To ensure adequate DEI of at least 30–35 Cal/kg/d, higher fat intake can be considered, e.g., non-saturated fats, omega 3-rich flaxseed, canola, and olive oil. ‡‡ If worsening uremic signs and symptoms occur, DPI < 0.6 g/kg/d with supplements can be considered. Abbreviations: BMI: body mass index, CKD: chronic kidney disease, d: day, DEI: dietary energy intake, DPI: dietary protein intake; eGFR: estimated glomerular filtration rate, GI: gastrointestinal, HBV: high biologic value, IBW: ideal body weight, ISRNM: International Society of Renal Nutrition and Metabolism, K: potassium; MIS: malnutrition–inflammation score; Na: sodium; Phos.: phosphorus; PTH: parathyroid hormone, PEW: protein energy wasting, SGA: subjective global assessment, SUN: serum urea nitrogen, UUN: urine urea nitrogen.