The mismatch negativity: a review of underlying mechanisms

Marta I Garrido, James M Kilner, Klaas E Stephan, Karl J Friston, Marta I Garrido, James M Kilner, Klaas E Stephan, Karl J Friston

Abstract

The mismatch negativity (MMN) is a brain response to violations of a rule, established by a sequence of sensory stimuli (typically in the auditory domain) [Näätänen R. Attention and brain function. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum; 1992]. The MMN reflects the brain's ability to perform automatic comparisons between consecutive stimuli and provides an electrophysiological index of sensory learning and perceptual accuracy. Although the MMN has been studied extensively, the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying the MMN are not well understood. Several hypotheses have been put forward to explain the generation of the MMN; amongst these accounts, the "adaptation hypothesis" and the "model adjustment hypothesis" have received the most attention. This paper presents a review of studies that focus on neuronal mechanisms underlying the MMN generation, discusses the two major explanatory hypotheses, and proposes predictive coding as a general framework that attempts to unify both.

Figures

Fig. 1
Fig. 1
Scalp topography and time latency of the MMN. (a) ERP responses to standard and deviant tones overlaid on a whole scalp map of 128 EEG electrodes. (b) ERP responses to the standard and deviant tones at a fronto-central channel. (c) MMN difference wave obtained by subtracting ERP to standards from ERP to deviants. (d) MMN response averaged over the time window of 100–200 ms interpolated for a 3D scalp topography. (From Garrido et al., 2007.)
Fig. 2
Fig. 2
MMN generators estimated from EEG and MEG data. The centre of gravity changes from temporal to frontal areas over time. Frontal sources were detected with EEG; due to their radial orientation they might not be detected by MEG. These sources were determined with minimum norm estimates (MNE). (Adapted from Rinne et al., 2000.)
Fig. 3
Fig. 3
MMN underlying sources revealed by EEG and conjoint EEG and fMRI measures. (a) Dipoles indicated by red arrows at bilateral STG and IFG (adapted from Doeller et al., 2003). (b) Dipole locations at bilateral STG and right IFG and (c) significant fMRI activation for deviants (adapted from Opitz et al., 2002). (d) Most significant independent component (computed by ICA-LORETA analysis, adapted from Marco-Pallarés et al., 2005). This figure shows consistency for MMN sources across different modalities.
Fig. 4
Fig. 4
The MMN interpreted in terms of predictive coding. (a) Illustrative scheme of the general framework of hierarchical Bayes and predictive coding as an explanation for ERP emerge. (b) The MMN, a concrete example and plausible underlying mechanisms.

References

    1. Akatsuka K., Wasaka T., Nakata H., Inui K., Hoshiyama M., Kakigi R. Mismatch responses to temporal discrimination of somatosensory stimulation. Clin Neurophysiol. 2005;116:1930–1937.
    1. Alain C., Woods D.L., Knight R.T. A distributed cortical network for auditory sensory memory in humans. Brain Res. 1998;812:23–37.
    1. Alho K., Sainio K., Sajaniemi N., Reinikainen K., Näätänen R. Event-related brain potential of human newborns to pitch change of an acoustic stimulus. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1990;77:151–155.
    1. Alho K. Cerebral generators of mismatch negativity (MMN) and its magnetic counterpart (MMNm) elicited by sound changes. Ear Hear. 1995;16:38–51.
    1. Arnott S.R., Allan C. Stepping out of the spotlight: MMN attenuation as a function of distance from the attended location. Neuroreport. 2002;13:2209–2212.
    1. Atienza M., Cantero J.L. Complex sound processing during human REM sleep by recovering information from long-term memory as revealed by the mismatch negativity (MMN) Brain Res. 2001;901:151–160.
    1. Atienza M., Cantero J.L., Dominguez-Marin E. The time course of neural changes underlying auditory perceptual learning. Learn Mem. 2002;9:138–150.
    1. Atienza M., Cantero J.L., Quiroga R.Q. Precise timing accounts for posttraining sleep-dependent enhancements of the auditory mismatch negativity. NeuroImage. 2005;26:628–634.
    1. Astikainen P., Ruusuvirta T., Wikgren J., Korhonen T. The human brain processes visual changes that are not cued by attended auditory stimulation. Neurosci Lett. 2004;368:231–234.
    1. Baldeweg T., Richardson A., Watkins S., Foale C., Gruzelier J. Impaired frequency discrimination in dyslexia detected with mismatch evoked potentials. Ann Neurol. 1999;45:495–503.
    1. Baldeweg T., Klugman A., Gruzelier J., Hirsch S.R. Mismatch negativity potentials and cognitive impairment in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res. 2004;69:203–217.
    1. Baldeweg T. Repetition effects to sounds: evidence for predictive coding in the auditory system. Trends Cogn Sci. 2006;10:93–94.
    1. Baldeweg T., Wong D., Stephan K.E. Nicotinic modulation of human auditory sensory memory: evidence from mismatch negativity potentials. Int J Psychophysiol. 2006;59:49–58.
    1. Böttcher-Gandor C., Ullperger P. Mismatch negativity in event-related potentials to auditory stimuli as a function of varying interstimulus interval. Psychophysiology. 1992;29:546–550.
    1. Bramon E., Croft R.J., McDonald C., Virdi G.K., Gruzelier J.G., Baldeweg T. Mismatch negativity in schizophrenia: a family study. Schizophr Res. 2004;67:1–10.
    1. Cusack R., Deeks J., Aikman G., Carlyon R.P. Effects of location, frequency region, and time course of selective attention on auditory scene analysis. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 2004;30:643–656.
    1. Czigler I., Balázs L., Pató L.G. Visual change detection: event-related potentials are dependent on stimulus location in humans. Neurosci Lett. 2004;364:149–153.
    1. David O., Kiebel S.J., Harrison L.M., Mattout J., Kilner J.M., Friston K.J. Dynamic causal modelling of evoked responses in EEG and MEG. NeuroImage. 2006;30:1255–1272.
    1. Denham S.L., Winkler I. The role of predictive models in the formation of auditory streams. J Physiol Paris. 2006;100:154–170.
    1. Deouell L.Y., Bentin S., Giard M.-H. Mismatch negativity in dichotic listening: evidence for interhemispheric differences and multiple generators. Psychophysiology. 1998;35:355–365.
    1. Doeller C.F., Opitz B., Mecklinger A., Krick C., Reith W., Schröger E. Prefrontal cortex involvement in preattentive auditory deviance detection: neuroimaging and electrophysiological evidence. NeuroImage. 2003;20:1270–1282.
    1. Dunbar G., Boeijinga P.H., Demazieres A., Cisterni C., Kuchibhatla R., Wesnes K. Effects of TC-1734 (AZD3480), a selective neuronal nicotinic receptor agonist, on cognitive performance and the EEG of young heathy male volunteers. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2007;191:919–929.
    1. Ehrlichman R.S., Maxwell C.R., Majumdar S., Siegel S.J. Deviance-elicited changes in event-related potentials are attenuated by ketamine in mice. J Cogn Neurosci. 2008;20:1403–1414.
    1. Engeland C., Mahoney C., Mohr E., Ilivitsky V., Knott V.J. Acute nicotine effects on auditory sensory memory in tacrine-treated and nontreated patients with Alzheimer’s disease: an event-related potential study. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2002;72:457–464.
    1. Escera C., Alho K., Winkler I., Näätänen R. Neural mechanisms of involuntary attention to acoustic novelty and change. J Cogn Neurosci. 1998;10:590–604.
    1. Escera C., Yago E., Corral M.-J., Corbera S., Nunez M.I. Attention capture by auditory significant stimuli: semantic analysis follows attention switching. Eur J Neursci. 2003;18:2408–2412.
    1. Faber E.S., Sah P. Calcium-activated potassium channels: multiple contributions to neuronal function. Neuroscientist. 2003;9:181–194.
    1. Friston K.J., Frith C.D. Schizophrenia: a disconnection syndrome? Clin Neurosci. 1995;3:89–97.
    1. Friston K. Learning and inference in the brain. Neural Netw. 2003;16:1325–1352.
    1. Friston K. A theory of cortical responses. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2005;360:815–836.
    1. Garrido M.I., Kilner J.M., Kiebel S.J., Stephan K.E., Friston K.J. Dynamic causal modelling of evoked potentials: a reproducibility study. NeuroImage. 2007;36:571–580.
    1. Garrido M.I., Friston K.J., Kiebel S.J., Stephan K.E., Baldeweg T., Kilner J.M. The functional anatomy of the MMN: a DCM study of the roving paradigm. NeuroImage. 2008;42:936–944.
    1. Giard M.H., Perrin F., Pernier J., Bouchet P. Brain generators implicated in the processing of auditory stimulus deviance: a topographic event-related potential study. Psychophysiology. 1990;27:627–640.
    1. Gomot M., Giard M.-H., Roux S., Barthelemy C., Bruneau N. Maturation of frontal and temporal components of mismatch negativity (MMN) in children. Neuroreport. 2000;14:3109–3112.
    1. Grau C., Fuentemilla L., Marco-Pallarés J. Functional neural dynamics underlying auditory event-related N1 and N1 suppression response. NeuroImage. 2007;36:522–531.
    1. Hari R., Hämäläinen M., Ilmoniemi R., Kaukoranta E., Reinikainen K., Salminen J. Responses of primary auditory cortex to pitch changes in a sequence of tone pips: neuromagnetic recordings in man. Neurosci Lett. 1984;50:127–132.
    1. Hari R., Rif J., Tiihonen J., Sams M. Neuromagnetic mismatch fields to single and paired tones. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1992;82:152–154.
    1. Haenschel C., Vernon D.J., Prabuddh D., Gruzelier J.H., Baldeweg T. Event-related brain potential correlates of human auditory sensory memory-trace formation. J Neurosci. 2005;25:10494–10501.
    1. Harkrider A.W., Hedrick M.S. Acute effect of nicotine on auditory gating in smokers and non-smokers. Hear Res. 2005;202:114–128.
    1. Harrison P.J., Weinberger D.R. Schizophrenia genes, gene expression, and neuropathology: on the matter of their convergence. Mol Psychiatry. 2005;10:40–68.
    1. Harrison L.M., Stephan K.E., Rees G., Friston K.J. Extra-classical receptive field effects measured in striate cortex with fMRI. NeuroImage. 2007;34:1199–1208.
    1. Heekeren K., Daumann J., Neukirch A., Stock C., Kawohl W., Norra C. Mismatch negativity generation in the human 5HT2A agonist and NMDA antagonist model of psychosis. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2008;199:77–88.
    1. Horváth J., Czigler I., Jacobsen T., Maess B., Schröger E., Winkler I. MMN or no MMN: no magnitude of deviance effect on the MMN amplitude. Psychophysiology. 2008;45:60–69.
    1. Inami R., Kirino E., Inoue R., Arai H. Transdermal nicotine administration enhances automatic auditory processing reflected by mismatch negativity. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2005;80:453–461.
    1. Javitt D.C. Glutamate as a therapeutic target in psychiatric disorders. Mol Psychiatry. 2004;9:984–997.
    1. Javitt D.C., Steinscheneider M., Schroeder C.E., Arezzo J.C. Role of cortical N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors in auditory sensory memory and mismatch negativity generation: implications for schizophrenia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1996;93:11962–11967.
    1. Jääskeläinen I.P., Ahveninen J., Bonmassar G., Dale A.M., Ilmoniemi R.J., Levänen S. Human posterior auditory cortex gates novel sounds to consciousness. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2004;101:6809–6814.
    1. Jemel B., Achenbach C., Muller B.W., Ropcke B., Oades R.D. Mismatch negativity results from bilateral asymmetric dipole sources in the frontal and temporal lobes. Brain Topogr. 2002;15:13–27.
    1. Kähkönen S., Ahveninen J., Jääskeläinen I.P., Kaakkola S., Näätänen R., Huttunen J. Effects of haloperidol on selective attention: a combined whole-head MEG and high-resolution EEG study. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2001;25:498–504.
    1. Kähkönen S., Mäkinen V., Jääskeläinen I.P., Pennanen S., Liesivuori J., Ahveninen J. Serotonergic modulation of mismatch negativity. Psychiatry Res. 2005;138:61–74.
    1. Kane N.M., Curry S.H., Butler S.R., Cummins B.H. Electrophysiological indicator for awakening from coma. Lancet. 1993;341:688.
    1. Kasai K., Yamada H., Kamio S., Nakagome K., Iwanami A., Fukuda M. Do high or low doses of anxiolytics and hypnotics affect mismatch negativity in schizophrenic subjects? An EEG and MEG study. Clin Neurophysiol. 2002;113:141–150.
    1. Kekoni J., Hämäläinen H., Saarinen M., Gröhn J., Reinikainen K., Lehtokoski A. Rate effect and mismatch responses in the somatosensory system: ERP-recordings in humans. Biol Psychol. 1997;46:125–142.
    1. Kiebel S.J., David O., Friston K.J. Dynamic causal modelling of evoked responses in EEG/MEG with lead field parameterization. NeuroImage. 2006;30:1273–1284.
    1. Kiebel S.J., Garrido M.I., Friston K.J. Dynamic causal modelling of evoked responses: the role of intrinsic connections. NeuroImage. 2007;36:332–345.
    1. Knott V., Blais C., Scherling C., Camarda J., Millar A., Fisher D. Neural effects of nicotine during auditory selective attention in smokers: an event-related potential study. Neuropsychobiology. 2006;53:115–126.
    1. Kraus N., McGee T.J., Carrell T.D., Zecker S.G., Nicol T.G., Koch D.B. Auditory neurophysiologic responses and discrimination deficits in children with learning problems. Science. 1996;273:971–973.
    1. Kreitschmann-Andermahr I., Rosburg T., Demme U., Gaser E., Nowak H., Sauer H. Effect of ketamine on the neuromagnetic mismatch negativity field in healthy humans. Brain Res Cogn Brain Res. 2001;12:109–116.
    1. Kujala T., Tervaniemi M., Schröger E. The mismatch in cognitive and clinical neuroscience: theoretical and methodological considerations. Biol Psychol. 2007;74:1–19.
    1. Leung S., Croft R.J., Baldeweg T., Nathan P.J. Acute dopamine D(1) and D(2) receptor stimulation does not modulate mismatch negativity (MMN) in healthy human subjects. Psychopharmacology. 2007;194:443–451.
    1. Levänen S., Ahonen A., Hari R., McEvoy L., Sams M. Deviant auditory stimuli activate human left and right auditory cortex differently. Cereb Cortex. 1996;6:288–296.
    1. Liebenthal E., Ellingson M.L., Spanaki M.V., Prieto T.E., Ropella K.M., Binder J.R. Simultaneous ERP and fMRI of the auditory cortex in a passive oddball paradigm. NeuroImage. 2003;19:1395–1404.
    1. Light G.A., Braff D.L. Stability of mismatch negativity deficits and their relationship to functional impairments in chronic schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry. 2005;162:1741–1743.
    1. Loveless N., Levanen S., Jousmaki V., Sams M., Hari R. Temporal integration in the auditory sensory memory: neuromagnetic evidence. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1996;100:220–228.
    1. Maess B., Jacobsen T., Schröger E., Friederici A.D. Localizing pre-attentive auditory memory-based comparison: magnetic mismatch negativity to pitch change. NeuroImage. 2007;37:561–571.
    1. Marco-Pallarés J., Grau C., Ruffini G. Combined ICA-LORETA analysis of mismatch negativity. NeuroImage. 2005;25:471–477.
    1. Marreiros A.C., Kiebel S.J., Friston K.J. Dynamic causal modelling for fMRI: a two-state model. NeuroImage. 2008;39:269–278.
    1. May P., Tiitinen H., Ilmoniemi R.J., Nyman G., Taylor J.G., Näätänen R. Frequency change detection in human auditory cortex. J Comput Neurosci. 1999;6:99–120.
    1. McCormick D.A., Williamson A. Convergence and divergence of neurotransmitter action in human cerebral cortex. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1989;86:8098–8102.
    1. Michie P.T., Innes-Brown H., Todd J., Jablensky A.V. Duration mismatch negativity in biological relatives of patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Biol Psychiatry. 2002;52:749–758.
    1. Molholm S., Martinez A., Ritter W., Javitt D.C., Foxe J.J. The neural circuitry of pre-attentive auditory change-detection: an fMRI study of pitch and duration mismatch negativity generators. Cereb Cortex. 2005;15:545–551.
    1. Müller B.W., Achenbach C., Oades R.O., Bender S., Schall U. Modulation of mismatch negativity by stimulus deviance and modality of attention. Neuroreport. 2002;13:1317–1320.
    1. Mumford D. On the computational architecture of the neocortex. II. The role of cortico-cortical loops. Biol Cybern. 1992;66:241–251.
    1. Murakami T., Nakagome K., Kamio S., Kasai K., Iwanami A., Hiramatsu K. The effects of benzodiazepines on event-related potential indices of automatic and controlled processing in schizophrenia: a preliminary report. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2002;26:651–661.
    1. Murray S.O., Schrater P., Kersten D. Perceptual grouping and the interactions between visual cortical areas. Neural Netw. 2004;17:695–705.
    1. Nakagome K., Ichikawa I., Kanno O., Akaho R., Suzuki M., Takazawa S. Overnight effects of triazolam on cognitive function: an event-related potential study. Neuropsychobiology. 1998;38:232–240.
    1. Näätänen R., Paavilainen P., Alho K., Reinikainen K., Sams M. Do event-related potentials reveal the mechanism of the auditory sensory memory in the human brain? Neurosci Lett. 1989;27:217–221.
    1. Näätänen R. Lawrence Erlbaum; Hillsdale, NJ: 1992. Attention and brain function.
    1. Näätänen R., Alho K. Mismatch negativity – a unique measure of sensory processing in audition. Int J Neurosci. 1995;80:317–337.
    1. Näätänen R., Lehtokoski A., Lennes M., Cheour M., Houtilainen M., Ilvonen A. Language-specific phoneme representations revealed by electric and magnetic brain responses. Nature. 1997;385:432–434.
    1. Näätänen R., Winkler I. The concept of auditory stimulus representation in cognitive neuroscience. Psychol Bull. 1999;125:826–859.
    1. Näätänen R. Mismatch negativity (MMN): perspectives for application. Int J Psychophysiol. 2000;37:3–10.
    1. Näätänen R., Tervaniemi M., Sussman E., Paavilainen P., Winkler I. “Primitive intelligence” in the auditory cortex. Trends Neurosci. 2001;24:283–288.
    1. Näätänen R. Mismatch negativity: clinical research and possible applications. Int J Psychophysiol. 2003;48:179–188.
    1. Näätänen R., Pakarinen S., Rinne T., Takegata R. The mismatch negativity (MMN): towards the optimal paradigm. Clin Neurophysiol. 2004;115:140–144.
    1. Näätänen R., Jacobsen T., Winkler I. Memory-based or afferent process in mismatch negativity (MMN): a review of the evidence. Psychophysiology. 2005;42:25–32.
    1. Näätänen R., Paavilainen P., Rinne T., Alho K. The mismatch negativity (MMN) in basic research of central auditory processing: a review. Clin Neurophysiol. 2007;118:2544–2590.
    1. Opitz B., Rinne T., Mecklinger A., von Cramon D.Y., Schröger E. Differential contribution of frontal and temporal cortices to auditory change detection: fMRI and ERP results. NeuroImage. 2002;15:167–174.
    1. Oranje B., van Berckel B.N., Kemner C., van Ree J.M., Kahn R.S., Verbaten M.N. The effects of a sub-anaesthetic dose of ketamine on human selective attention. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2002;22:293–302.
    1. Otten L.J., Alain C., Picton T.W. Effects of visual attentional load on auditory processing. Neuroreport. 2000;11:875–880.
    1. Paavilainen P., Simola J., Jaramillo M., Näätänen R., Winkler I. Preattentive extraction of abstract feature conjunctions from auditory stimulation as reflected by the mismatch negativity (MMN) Psychophysiology. 2001;38:359–365.
    1. Pazo-Alvarez P., Cadaveira F., Amenedo E. MMN in the visual modality: a review. Biol Pshycol. 2003;63:199–236.
    1. Pekkonen E., Jousmäki V., Reinikainen K., Partanen J. Automatic auditory discrimination is impaired in Parkinson’s disease. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1995;95:47–52.
    1. Pekkonen E., Hirvonen J., Ahveninen J., Kähkönen S., Kaakkola S., Huttunen J. Memory-based comparison process not attenuated by haloperidol: a combined MEG and EEG study. Neuroreport. 2002;13:177–181.
    1. Pekkonen E., Jääskeläinen I.P., Kaakkola S., Ahveninen J. Cholinergic modulation of preattentive auditory processing in aging. NeuroImage. 2005;27:387–392.
    1. Pekkonen E., Hirvonen J., Jääskeläinen I.P., Kaakkola S., Huttunen J. Auditory sensory memory and the cholinergic system: implications for Alzheimer’s disease. NeuroImage. 2001;14:376–382.
    1. Penny W.D., Stephan K.E., Mechelli A., Friston K.J. Comparing dynamic causal models. NeuroImage. 2004;22:1157–1172.
    1. Pulvermüller F. Brain reflections of words and their meaning. Trends Cogn Sci. 2001;5:517–523.
    1. Rao R.P., Ballard D.H. Predictive coding in the visual cortex: a functional interpretation of some extra-classical receptive-field effects. Nat Neurosci. 1999;2:79–87.
    1. Restuccia D., Della Marca G., Marra C., Rubino M., Valeriani M. Attentional load of the primary task influences the frontal but not the temporal generators of the mismatch negativity. Brain Res Cogn Brain Res. 2005;25:891–899.
    1. Rinne T., Alho K., Holi M., Sinkkonen J., Virtanen J., Bertrand O. Analysis of speech sounds is left-hemisphere predominant at 100–150 ms after sound onset. Neuroreport. 1999;10:1113–1117.
    1. Rinne T., Alho K., Ilmoniemi R.J., Virtanen J., Näätänen R. Separate time behaviors of the temporal and frontal mismatch negativity sources. NeuroImage. 2000;12:14–19.
    1. Rinne T., Degerman A., Alho K. Superior temporal and inferior frontal cortices are activated by infrequent sound duration decrements: an fMRI study. NeuroImage. 2005;26:66–72.
    1. Romanski L.M., Tian B., Fritz J., Mishkin M., Goldman-Rakic P.S., Rauschecker J.P. Dual streams of auditory afferents target multiple domains in the primate prefrontal cortex. Nat Neurosci. 1999;2:1131–1136.
    1. Rosburg T., Marinou V., Haueisen J., Smesny S., Sauer H. Effects of lorazepam on the neuromagnetic mismatch negativity (MMNm) and auditory evoked field component N100m. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2004;29:1723–1733.
    1. Rosburg T., Trautner P., Dietl T., Korzyukov O.A., Boutros N.N., Schaller C. Subdural recordings of the mismatch negativity (MMN) in patients with focal epilepsy. Brain. 2005;128:819–828.
    1. Sallinen M., Kaartinen J., Lyytinen H. Is the appearance of mismatch negativity during stage 2 sleep related to the elicitation of K-complex? Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1994;91:140–148.
    1. Sams M., Paavilainen P., Alho K., Näätänen R. Auditory frequency discrimination and event-related potentials. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1985;62:437–448.
    1. Saarinen J., Paavilanen P., Schröger E., Tervaniemi M., Näätänen R. Representation of abstract attributes of auditory stimuli in the human brain. Neuroreport. 1992;3:1149–1151.
    1. Smolnik R., Pietrowsky R., Fehm H.L., Born J. Enhanced selective attention after low-dose administration of the benzodiazepine antagonist flumazenil. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1998;18:241–247.
    1. Stephan K.E., Baldeweg T., Friston K.J. Synaptic plasticity and dysconnection in schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry. 2006;59:929–939.
    1. Stephan K.E., Harrison L.M., Kiebel S.J., David O., Penny W.D., Friston K.J. Dynamic causal models of neural system dynamics: current state and future extensions. J Biosci. 2007;32:129–144.
    1. Sussman E., Ritter W., Vaugham H.G. Attention affects the organization of auditory input associated with the mismatch negativity system. Brain Res. 1998;789:130–138.
    1. Sussman E., Winkler I. Dynamic sensory updating in the auditory system. Brain Res Cogn Brain Res. 2001;12:431–439.
    1. Sussman E., Steinschneider M. Neurophysiological evidence for context-dependent encoding of sensory input in human auditory cortex. Brain Res. 2006;1075:165–174.
    1. Sussman E.S., Horváth J., Winkler I., Orr M. The role of attention in formation of auditory streams. Percept Psychophys. 2007;69:136–152.
    1. Tervaniemi M., Maury S., Näätänen R. Neural representations of abstract stimulus features in the human brain as reflected by the mismatch negativity. Neuroreport. 1994;5:844–846.
    1. Tervaniemi M., Ilvonen T., Sinkkonen J., Kujala A., Alho K., Huotilainen M. Harmonic partials facilitate pitch discrimination in humans: electrophysiological and behavioural evidence. Neurosci Lett. 2000;279:29–32.
    1. Tervaniemi M., Medvedev S.V., Alho K., Pakhomov S.V., Roudas M.S., van Zuijen T.L. Lateralized automatic auditory processing of phonetic versus musical information: a PET study. Hum Brain Mapp. 2000;10:74–79.
    1. Tiitinen H., Alho K., Huotilainen M., Ilmoniemi R.J., Simola J., Näätänen R. Tonotopic auditory cortex and the magnetoencephalographic (MEG) equivalent of the mismatch negativity. Psychophysiology. 1993;30:537–540.
    1. Tiitinen H., May P., Reinikainen K., Näätänen R. Attentive novelty detection in humans is governed by pre-attentive sensory memory. Nature. 1994;372:90–92.
    1. Tiitinen H., Salminen N.H., Palomäki K.J., Mäkinen V.T., Alku P., May P.J.C. Neuromagnetic recordings reveal the temporal dynamics of auditory spatial processing in the human cortex. Neurosci Lett. 2006;396:17–22.
    1. Tremblay K., Kraus N., McGee T. The time course of auditory perceptual learning: neurophysiological changes during speech-sound training. Neuroreport. 1998;9:3557–3560.
    1. Umbricht D., Schmid L., Koller R., Vollenweider F.X., Hell D., Javitt D.C. Ketamine-induced deficits in auditory and visual context-dependent processing in healthy volunteers: implications for models of cognitive deficits in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2000;57:1139–1147.
    1. Umbricht D., Koller R., Vollenweider F.X., Schmid L. Mismatch negativity predicts psychotic experiences induced by NMDA receptor antagonist in healthy volunteers. Biol Psychiatry. 2002;51:400–406.
    1. Umbricht D., Koller R., Schmid L., Skrabo A., Grübel C., Huber T. How specific are deficits in mismatch negativity generation to schizophrenia? Biol Psychiatry. 2003;53:1120–1131.
    1. Umbricht D., Vollenweider F.X., Schmid L., Grubel C., Skrabo A., Huber T. Effects of the 5-HT2A agonist psilocybin on mismatch negativity generation and AX-continuous performance task: implications for the neuropharmacology of cognitive deficits in schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2003;28:170–181.
    1. Umbricht D., Krljes S. Mismatch negativity in schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. Schizophr Res. 2005;76:1–23.
    1. van Zuijen T.L., Sussman E., Winkler I., Näätänen R., Tervaniemi M. Grouping of sequential sounds – an event-related potential study comparing musicians and non-musicians. J Cogn Neurosci. 2004;16:331–338.
    1. van Zuijen T.L., Simoens V.L., Paavilainen P., Näätänen R., Tervaniemi M. Implicit, intuitive, and explicit knowledge of abstract regularities in sound sequence: an event-related brain potential study. J Cogn Neurosci. 2006;18:1292–1303.
    1. Vuust P., Pallesen K.J., Bailey C., van Zuijen T.L., Gjedde A., Roepstorff A. To musicians, the message is in the meter pre-attentive neuronal responses to incongruent rhythm are left-lateralized in musicians. NeuroImage. 2005;24:560–564.
    1. Winkler I., Karmos G., Näätänen R. Adaptive modelling of the unattended acoustic environment reflected in the mismatch negativity event-related potential. Brain Res. 1996;742:239–252.
    1. Winkler I., Tervaniemi M., Näätänen R. Two separate codes for missing-fundamental pitch in the human auditory cortex. J Acoust Soc Am. 1997;102:1072–1082.
    1. Woldorff M.G., Gallen C.C., Hampson S.A., Hillyard S.A., Pantev C., Sobel D. Modulation of early sensory processing in human auditory cortex during auditory selective attention. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1993;90:8722–8726.
    1. Yabe H., Tervaniemi M., Reinikainen K., Näätänen R. Temporal window of integration revealed by MMN to sound omission. Neuroreport. 1997;8:1971–1974.
    1. Yuille A., Kersten D. Vision as Bayesian inference: analysis by synthesis? Trends Cogn Sci. 2006;10:301–308.

Source: PubMed

스폰서 및 공동 작업자

건강 상태

약물 개입

3
구독하다