Developing a clinical translational neuroscience taxonomy for anxiety and mood disorder: protocol for the baseline-follow up Research domain criteria Anxiety and Depression ("RAD") project

Leanne M Williams, Andrea N Goldstein-Piekarski, Nowreen Chowdhry, Katherine A Grisanzio, Nancy A Haug, Zoe Samara, Amit Etkin, Ruth O'Hara, Alan F Schatzberg, Trisha Suppes, Jerome Yesavage, Leanne M Williams, Andrea N Goldstein-Piekarski, Nowreen Chowdhry, Katherine A Grisanzio, Nancy A Haug, Zoe Samara, Amit Etkin, Ruth O'Hara, Alan F Schatzberg, Trisha Suppes, Jerome Yesavage

Abstract

Background: Understanding how brain circuit dysfunctions relate to specific symptoms offers promise for developing a brain-based taxonomy for classifying psychopathology, identifying targets for mechanistic studies and ultimately for guiding treatment choice. The goal of the Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) initiative of the National Institute of Mental Health is to accelerate the development of such neurobiological models of mental disorder independent of traditional diagnostic criteria. In our RDoC Anxiety and Depression ("RAD") project we focus trans-diagnostically on the spectrum of depression and anxiety psychopathology. Our aims are a) to use brain imaging to define cohesive dimensions defined by dysfunction of circuits involved in reactivity to and regulation of negatively valenced emotional stimulation and in cognitive control, b) to assess the relationships between these dimension and specific symptoms, behavioral performance and the real world capacity to function socially and at work and c) to assess the stability of brain-symptom-behavior-function relationships over time.

Methods and design: Here we present the protocol for the "RAD" project, one of the first RDoC studies to use brain circuit functioning to define new dimensions of psychopathology. The RAD project follows baseline-follow up design. In line with RDoC principles we use a strategy for recruiting all clients who "walk through the door" of a large community mental health clinic as well as the surrounding community. The clinic attends to a broad spectrum of anxiety and mood-related symptoms. Participants are unmedicated and studied at baseline using a standardized battery of functional brain imaging, structural brain imaging and behavioral probes that assay constructs of threat reactivity, threat regulation and cognitive control. The battery also includes self-report measures of anxiety and mood symptoms, and social and occupational functioning. After baseline assessments, therapists in the clinic apply treatment planning as usual. Follow-up assessments are undertaken at 3 months, to establish the reliability of brain-based subgroups over time and to assess whether these subgroups predict real-world functional capacity over time. First enrollment was August 2013, and is ongoing.

Discussion: This project is designed to advance knowledge toward a neural circuit taxonomy for mental disorder. Data will be shared via the RDoC database for dissemination to the scientific community. The clinical translational neuroscience goals of the project are to develop brain-behavior profile reports for each individual participant and to refine these reports with therapist feedback. Reporting of results is expected from December 2016 onward.

Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02220309 . Registered: August 13, 2014.

Keywords: Anxiety; Brain circuits; Brain imaging; Cognition; Depression; Emotion; Research Domain Criteria (RDoC).

Figures

Fig. 1
Fig. 1
Summary of negative affect and cognitive control circuits and the proposed extremes of dysfunction within these circuits

References

    1. Baxter AJ, Scott KM, Vos T, Whiteford HA. Global prevalence of anxiety disorders: a systematic review and meta-regression. Psychol Med. 2013;43(5):897–910. doi: 10.1017/S003329171200147X.
    1. Ferrari AJ, Somerville AJ, Baxter AJ, Norman R, Patten SB, Vos T, Whiteford HA. Global variation in the prevalence and incidence of major depressive disorder: a systematic review of the epidemiological literature. Psychol Med. 2013;43(3):471–481. doi: 10.1017/S0033291712001511.
    1. Whiteford HA, Degenhardt L, Rehm J, Baxter AJ, Ferrari AJ, Erskine HE, Charlson FJ, Norman RE, Flaxman AD, Johns N, et al. Global burden of disease attributable to mental and substance use disorders: findings from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet. 2013;382(9904):1575–1586. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61611-6.
    1. American Psychiatric Association . Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-5. 5. Washington, D.C: American Psychiatric Association; 2013.
    1. Somers JM, Goldner EM, Waraich P, Hsu L. Prevalence and incidence studies of anxiety disorders: a systematic review of the literature. Can J Psychiatry. 2006;51(2):100–113.
    1. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Results from the 2012 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Mental Health Findings, NSDUH Series H-47, HHS Publication No. (SMA) 13-4805. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2013.
    1. Weissman MM, Bland RC, Canino GJ, Faravelli C, Greenwald S, Hwu HG, Joyce PR, Karam EG, Lee CK, Lellouch J, et al. The cross-national epidemiology of panic disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1997;54(4):305–309. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1997.01830160021003.
    1. Grohol J. Top 25 Psychiatric Medication Prescriptions for 2013. Psych Central; 2015. .
    1. Cuthbert BN, Insel TR. Toward the future of psychiatric diagnosis: the seven pillars of RDoC. BMC Med. 2013;11:126. doi: 10.1186/1741-7015-11-126.
    1. Insel T, Cuthbert B, Garvey M, Heinssen R, Pine DS, Quinn K, Sanislow C, Wang P. Research domain criteria (RDoC): toward a new classification framework for research on mental disorders. Am J Psychiatry. 2010;167(7):748–751. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.09091379.
    1. Williams L. Precision psychiatry: a neural circuit taxonomy for depression and anxiety. Lancet. 2016.
    1. Woody ML, Gibb BE. Integrating NIMH Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) into depression research. Curr Opin Psychol. 2015;4:6–12. doi: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.01.004.
    1. Kober H, Barrett LF, Joseph J, Bliss-Moreau E, Lindquist K, Wager TD. Functional grouping and cortical-subcortical interactions in emotion: a meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies. Neuroimage. 2008;42(2):998–1031. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.03.059.
    1. Robinson OJ, Krimsky M, Lieberman L, Allen P, Vytal K, Grillon C. The dorsal medial prefrontal (anterior cingulate) cortex-amygdala aversive amplification circuit in unmedicated generalised and social anxiety disorders: an observational study. Lancet Psychiatry. 2014;1(4):294–302. doi: 10.1016/S2215-0366(14)70305-0.
    1. Etkin A, Prater KE, Hoeft F, Menon V, Schatzberg AF. Failure of anterior cingulate activation and connectivity with the amygdala during implicit regulation of emotional processing in generalized anxiety disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2010;167(5):545–554. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09070931.
    1. Williams LM, Das P, Liddell BJ, Kemp AH, Rennie CJ, Gordon E. Mode of functional connectivity in amygdala pathways dissociates level of awareness for signals of fear. J Neurosci. 2006;26(36):9264–9271. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1016-06.2006.
    1. Niendam TA, Laird AR, Ray KL, Dean YM, Glahn DC, Carter CS. Meta-analytic evidence for a superordinate cognitive control network subserving diverse executive functions. Cogn Affect Behav Neurosci. 2012;12(2):241–268. doi: 10.3758/s13415-011-0083-5.
    1. Cole MW, Schneider W. The cognitive control network: integrated cortical regions with dissociable functions. Neuroimage. 2007;37(1):343–360. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.03.071.
    1. Roalf DR, Ruparel K, Gur RE, Bilker W, Gerraty R, Elliott MA, Gallagher RS, Almasy L, Pogue-Geile MF, Prasad K, et al. Neuroimaging predictors of cognitive performance across a standardized neurocognitive battery. Neuropsychology. 2014;28(2):161–176. doi: 10.1037/neu0000011.
    1. Jaworska N, Yang XR, Knott V, MacQueen G. A review of fMRI studies during visual emotive processing in major depressive disorder. World J Biol Psychiatry. 2015;16(7):448–471. doi: 10.3109/15622975.2014.885659.
    1. Fonzo GA, Ramsawh HJ, Flagan TM, Sullivan SG, Letamendi A, Simmons AN, Paulus MP, Stein MB. Common and disorder-specific neural responses to emotional faces in generalised anxiety, social anxiety and panic disorders. Br J Psychiatry. 2015;206(3):206–15. doi: 10.1192/bjp.bp.114.149880.
    1. Stein MB, Goldin PR, Sareen J, Zorrilla LT, Brown GG. Increased amygdala activation to angry and contemptuous faces in generalized social phobia. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2002;59(11):1027–1034. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.59.11.1027.
    1. Phan KL, Fitzgerald DA, Nathan PJ, Tancer ME. Association between amygdala hyperactivity to harsh faces and severity of social anxiety in generalized social phobia. Biol Psychiatry. 2006;59(5):424–429. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.08.012.
    1. Killgore WD, Britton JC, Schwab ZJ, Price LM, Weiner MR, Gold AL, Rosso IM, Simon NM, Pollack MH, Rauch SL. Cortico-limbic responses to masked affective faces across ptsd, panic disorder, and specific phobia. Depress Anxiety. 2014;31(2):150–159. doi: 10.1002/da.22156.
    1. Fu CH, Williams SC, Cleare AJ, Brammer MJ, Walsh ND, Kim J, Andrew CM, Pich EM, Williams PM, Reed LJ, et al. Attenuation of the neural response to sad faces in major depression by antidepressant treatment: a prospective, event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2004;61(9):877–889. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.61.9.877.
    1. Victor TA, Furey ML, Fromm SJ, Ohman A, Drevets WC. Relationship between amygdala responses to masked faces and mood state and treatment in major depressive disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2010;67(11):1128–1138. doi: 10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.144.
    1. Williams LM, Korgaonkar MS, Song YC, Paton R, Eagles S, Goldstein-Piekarski A, Grieve SM, Harris AW, Usherwood T, Etkin A. Amygdala Reactivity to Emotional Faces in the Prediction of General and Medication-Specific Responses to Antidepressant Treatment in the Randomized iSPOT-D Trial. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2015;40(10):2398–2408. doi: 10.1038/npp.2015.89.
    1. Suslow T, Konrad C, Kugel H, Rumstadt D, Zwitserlood P, Schoning S, Ohrmann P, Bauer J, Pyka M, Kersting A, et al. Automatic mood-congruent amygdala responses to masked facial expressions in major depression. Biol Psychiatry. 2010;67(2):155–160. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.07.023.
    1. Arnone D, McKie S, Elliott R, Thomas EJ, Downey D, Juhasz G, Williams SR, Deakin JF, Anderson IM. Increased amygdala responses to sad but not fearful faces in major depression: relation to mood state and pharmacological treatment. Am J Psychiatry. 2012;169(8):841–850. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2012.11121774.
    1. Blair KS, Geraci M, Smith BW, Hollon N, DeVido J, Otero M, Blair JR, Pine DS. Reduced dorsal anterior cingulate cortical activity during emotional regulation and top-down attentional control in generalized social phobia, generalized anxiety disorder, and comorbid generalized social phobia/generalized anxiety disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2012;72(6):476–482. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.04.013.
    1. Matthews SC, Strigo IA, Simmons AN, Yang TT, Paulus MP. Decreased functional coupling of the amygdala and supragenual cingulate is related to increased depression in unmedicated individuals with current major depressive disorder. J Affect Disord. 2008;111(1):13–20. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2008.05.022.
    1. Prater KE, Hosanagar A, Klumpp H, Angstadt M, Phan KL. Aberrant amygdala-frontal cortex connectivity during perception of fearful faces and at rest in generalized social anxiety disorder. Depress Anxiety. 2013;30(3):234–241. doi: 10.1002/da.22014.
    1. Rose EJ, Simonotto E, Ebmeier KP. Limbic over-activity in depression during preserved performance on the n-back task. Neuroimage. 2006;29(1):203–215. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.07.002.
    1. Matsuo K, Glahn DC, Peluso MA, Hatch JP, Monkul ES, Najt P, Sanches M, Zamarripa F, Li J, Lancaster JL, et al. Prefrontal hyperactivation during working memory task in untreated individuals with major depressive disorder. Mol Psychiatry. 2007;12(2):158–166. doi: 10.1038/sj.mp.4001894.
    1. Siegle GJ, Thompson W, Carter CS, Steinhauer SR, Thase ME. Increased amygdala and decreased dorsolateral prefrontal BOLD responses in unipolar depression: related and independent features. Biol Psychiatry. 2007;61(2):198–209. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.05.048.
    1. Elliott R, Sahakian BJ, Herrod JJ, Robbins TW, Paykel ES. Abnormal response to negative feedback in unipolar depression: evidence for a diagnosis specific impairment. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1997;63(1):74–82. doi: 10.1136/jnnp.63.1.74.
    1. Korgaonkar MS, Grieve SM, Etkin A, Koslow SH, Williams LM. Using standardized fMRI protocols to identify patterns of prefrontal circuit dysregulation that are common and specific to cognitive and emotional tasks in major depressive disorder: first wave results from the iSPOT-D study. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2013;38(5):863–871. doi: 10.1038/npp.2012.252.
    1. Koric L, Volle E, Seassau M, Bernard FA, Mancini J, Dubois B, Pelissolo A, Levy R. How cognitive performance-induced stress can influence right VLPFC activation: an fMRI study in healthy subjects and in patients with social phobia. Hum Brain Mapp. 2012;33(8):1973–1986. doi: 10.1002/hbm.21340.
    1. Aizenstein HJ, Butters MA, Wu M, Mazurkewicz LM, Stenger VA, Gianaros PJ, Becker JT, Reynolds CF, 3rd, Carter CS. Altered functioning of the executive control circuit in late-life depression: episodic and persistent phenomena. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2009;17(1):30–42. doi: 10.1097/JGP.0b013e31817b60af.
    1. Risbrough V. Behavioral correlates of anxiety. Curr Top Behav Neurosci. 2010;2:205–228. doi: 10.1007/7854_2009_11.
    1. Craske MG, Rauch SL, Ursano R, Prenoveau J, Pine DS, Zinbarg RE. What is an anxiety disorder? Depress Anxiety. 2009;26(12):1066–1085. doi: 10.1002/da.20633.
    1. den Hollander-Gijsman ME, Wardenaar KJ, de Beurs E, van der Wee NJ, Mooijaart A, van Buuren S, Zitman FG. Distinguishing symptom dimensions of depression and anxiety: an integrative approach. J Affect Disord. 2012;136(3):693–701. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2011.10.005.
    1. Beaudreau SA, O'Hara R. Late-life anxiety and cognitive impairment: a review. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2008;16(10):790–803. doi: 10.1097/JGP.0b013e31817945c3.
    1. Sheehan DV, Lecrubier Y, Sheehan KH, Amorim P, Janavs J, Weiller E, Hergueta T, Baker R, Dunbar GC. The Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview (M.I.N.I.): the development and validation of a structured diagnostic psychiatric interview for DSM-IV and ICD-10. J Clin Psychiatry. 1998;59 Suppl 20:22–33.
    1. Korgaonkar MS, Cooper NJ, Williams LM, Grieve SM. Mapping inter-regional connectivity of the entire cortex to characterize major depressive disorder: a whole-brain diffusion tensor imaging tractography study. Neuroreport. 2012;23(9):566–571. doi: 10.1097/WNR.0b013e3283546264.
    1. Liddell BJ, Brown KJ, Kemp AH, Barton MJ, Das P, Peduto A, Gordon E, Williams LM. A direct brainstem-amygdala-cortical 'alarm' system for subliminal signals of fear. Neuroimage. 2005;24(1):235–243. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.08.016.
    1. Williams LM, Liddell BJ, Kemp AH, Bryant RA, Meares RA, Peduto AS, Gordon E. Amygdala-prefrontal dissociation of subliminal and supraliminal fear. Hum Brain Mapp. 2006;27(8):652–661. doi: 10.1002/hbm.20208.
    1. Williams LM, Liddell BJ, Rathjen J, Brown KJ, Gray J, Phillips M, Young A, Gordon E. Mapping the time course of nonconscious and conscious perception of fear: an integration of central and peripheral measures. Hum Brain Mapp. 2004;21(2):64–74. doi: 10.1002/hbm.10154.
    1. Wild B, Erb M, Bartels M. Are emotions contagious? Evoked emotions while viewing emotionally expressive faces: quality, quantity, time course and gender differences. Psychiatry Res. 2001.
    1. Costafreda SG, Brammer MJ, David AS, Fu CH. Predictors of amygdala activation during the processing of emotional stimuli: a meta-analysis of 385 PET and fMRI studies. Brain Res Rev. 2008;58(1):57–70. doi: 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2007.10.012.
    1. Etkin A, Egner T, Peraza DM, Kandel ER, Hirsch J. Resolving emotional conflict: a role for the rostral anterior cingulate cortex in modulating activity in the amygdala. Neuron. 2006;51(6):871–882. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2006.07.029.
    1. Ekman P, Friesen WV. Pictures of Facial Affect. Consulting Psychologists Press; 1976.
    1. Falconer E, Allen A, Felmingham KL, Williams LM, Bryant RA. Inhibitory neural activity predicts response to cognitive-behavioral therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2013;74(9):895–901. doi: 10.4088/JCP.12m08020.
    1. Falconer E, Bryant R, Felmingham KL, Kemp AH, Gordon E, Peduto A, Olivieri G, Williams LM. The neural networks of inhibitory control in posttraumatic stress disorder. J Psychiatry Neurosci. 2008;33(5):413–422.
    1. Ashburner J, Friston KJ. Unified segmentation. Neuroimage. 2005;26(3):839–851. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.02.018.
    1. Patenaude B, Smith SM, Kennedy DN, Jenkinson M. A Bayesian model of shape and appearance for subcortical brain segmentation. Neuroimage. 2011;56(3):907–922. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.02.046.
    1. Watters AJ, Williams LM. Negative biases and risk for depression; integrating self-report and emotion task markers. Depress Anxiety. 2011;28(8):703–718. doi: 10.1002/da.20854.
    1. Egner T, Etkin A, Gale S, Hirsch J. Dissociable neural systems resolve conflict from emotional versus nonemotional distracters. Cereb Cortex. 2008;18(6):1475–1484. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bhm179.
    1. Mathersul D, Palmer DM, Gur RC, Gur RE, Cooper N, Gordon E, Williams LM. Explicit identification and implicit recognition of facial emotions: II. Core domains and relationships with general cognition. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 2009;31(3):278–291. doi: 10.1080/13803390802043619.
    1. Williams LM, Simms E, Clark CR, Paul RH, Rowe D, Gordon E. The test-retest reliability of a standardized neurocognitive and neurophysiological test battery: "neuromarker". Int J Neurosci. 2005;115(12):1605–1630. doi: 10.1080/00207450590958475.
    1. Clark CR, Paul RH, Williams LM, Arns M, Fallahpour K, Handmer C, Gordon E. Standardized assessment of cognitive functioning during development and aging using an automated touchscreen battery. Arch Clin Neuropsychol. 2006;21(5):449–467. doi: 10.1016/j.acn.2006.06.005.
    1. Paul RH, Clark CR, Lawrence J, Goldberg E, Williams LM, Cooper N, Cohen RA, Brickman AM, Gordon E. Age-dependent change in executive function and gamma 40 Hz phase synchrony. J Integr Neurosci. 2005;4(1):63–76. doi: 10.1142/S0219635205000690.
    1. Paul RH, Gunstad J, Cooper N, Williams LM, Clark CR, Cohen RA, Lawrence JJ, Gordon E. Cross-cultural assessment of neuropsychological performance and electrical brain function measures: additional validation of an international brain database. Int J Neurosci. 2007;117(4):549–568. doi: 10.1080/00207450600773665.
    1. Williams LM, Mathersul D, Palmer DM, Gur RC, Gur RE, Gordon E. Explicit identification and implicit recognition of facial emotions: I. Age effects in males and females across 10 decades. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 2009;31(3):257–277. doi: 10.1080/13803390802255635.
    1. Liddell BJ, Paul RH, Arns M, Gordon N, Kukla M, Rowe D, Cooper N, Moyle J, Williams LM. Rates of decline distinguish Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment relative to normal aging: integrating cognition and brain function. J Integr Neurosci. 2007;6(1):141–174. doi: 10.1142/S0219635207001374.
    1. Hatch A, Madden S, Kohn M, Clarke S, Touyz S, Williams LM. Anorexia nervosa: towards an integrative neuroscience model. Eur Eat Disord Rev. 2010;18(3):165–179. doi: 10.1002/erv.974.
    1. Williams LM, Hermens DF, Thein T, Clark CR, Cooper NJ, Clarke SD, Lamb C, Gordon E, Kohn MR. Using brain-based cognitive measures to support clinical decisions in ADHD. Pediatr Neurol. 2010;42(2):118–126. doi: 10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2009.08.010.
    1. Williams LM, Whitford TJ, Flynn G, Wong W, Liddell BJ, Silverstein S, Galletly C, Harris AW, Gordon E. General and social cognition in first episode schizophrenia: identification of separable factors and prediction of functional outcome using the IntegNeuro test battery. Schizophr Res. 2008;99(1–3):182–191. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2007.10.019.
    1. Beck AT, Epstein N, Brown G, Steer RA. An inventory for measuring clinical anxiety: psychometric properties. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1988;56(6):893–897. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.56.6.893.
    1. Meyer TJ, Miller ML, Metzger RL, Borkovec TD. Development and validation of the Penn State Worry Questionnaire. Behav Res Ther. 1990;28(6):487–495. doi: 10.1016/0005-7967(90)90135-6.
    1. Beck AT, Ward CH, Mendelson M, Mock J, Erbaugh J. An inventory for measuring depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1961;4:561–571. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1961.01710120031004.
    1. Rush AJ, Bernstein IH, Trivedi MH, Carmody TJ, Wisniewski S, Mundt JC, Shores-Wilson K, Biggs MM, Woo A, Nierenberg AA, et al. An evaluation of the quick inventory of depressive symptomatology and the hamilton rating scale for depression: a sequenced treatment alternatives to relieve depression trial report. Biol Psychiatry. 2006;59(6):493–501. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.08.022.
    1. Lovibond L. Manual for the depression anxiety stress scales. 2. Sydney: Psychology Foundation of Australia, 1996; 1995.
    1. Watson D, Weber K, Assenheimer JS, Clark LA, Strauss ME, McCormick RA. Testing a tripartite model: I. Evaluating the convergent and discriminant validity of anxiety and depression symptom scales. J Abnorm Psychol. 1995;104(1):3–14. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.104.1.3.
    1. Blanchard EB, Jones-Alexander J, Buckley TC, Forneris CA. Psychometric properties of the PTSD Checklist (PCL) Behav Res Ther. 1996;34(8):669–673. doi: 10.1016/0005-7967(96)00033-2.
    1. Patton JH, Stanford MS, Barratt ES. Factor structure of the Barratt impulsiveness scale. J Clin Psychol. 1995;51(6):768–774. doi: 10.1002/1097-4679(199511)51:6<768::AID-JCLP2270510607>;2-1.
    1. Heatherton TF, Kozlowski LT, Frecker RC, Fagerstrom KO. The Fagerstrom Test for Nicotine Dependence: a revision of the Fagerstrom Tolerance Questionnaire. Br J Addict. 1991;86(9):1119–1127. doi: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.1991.tb01879.x.
    1. Adamson SJ, Kay-Lambkin FJ, Baker AL, Lewin TJ, Thornton L, Kelly BJ, Sellman JD. An improved brief measure of cannabis misuse: the Cannabis Use Disorders Identification Test-Revised (CUDIT-R) Drug Alcohol Depend. 2010;110(1–2):137–143. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.02.017.
    1. The National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA). Screening for Drug Use in General Medical Settings: The NIDA Quick Screen. 2009.
    1. Chu DA, Williams LM, Harris AW, Bryant RA, Gatt JM. Early life trauma predicts self-reported levels of depressive and anxiety symptoms in nonclinical community adults: relative contributions of early life stressor types and adult trauma exposure. J Psychiatr Res. 2013;47(1):23–32. doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2012.08.006.
    1. Carver CS, Scheier MF, Weintraub JK. Assessing coping strategies: a theoretically based approach. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1989;56(2):267–283. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.56.2.267.
    1. Gross JJ, John OP. Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2003;85(2):348–362. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.348.
    1. Goldman HH, Skodol AE, Lave TR. Revising axis V for DSM-IV: a review of measures of social functioning. Am J Psychiatry. 1992;149(9):1148–1156. doi: 10.1176/ajp.149.9.1148.
    1. Development of the World Health Organization WHOQOL-BREF quality of life assessment. The WHOQOL Group. Psychol Med. 1998;28:551–8.
    1. Diener E, Emmons RA, Larsen RJ, Griffin S. The satisfaction with life scale. J Pers Assess. 1985;49(1):71–75. doi: 10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13.
    1. Kessler RC, Barber C, Beck A, Berglund P, Cleary PD, McKenas D, Pronk N, Simon G, Stang P, Ustun TB, et al. The World Health Organization Health and Work Performance Questionnaire (HPQ) J Occup Environ Med. 2003;45(2):156–174. doi: 10.1097/01.jom.0000052967.43131.51.
    1. Carvalho CM, Chang J, Lucas JE, Nevins JR, Wang Q, West M. High-dimensional sparse factor modeling: applications in gene expression genomics. J Am Stat Assoc. 2008;103(484):1438–1456. doi: 10.1198/016214508000000869.
    1. Jensen FV, Nielsen TD. Bayesian Networks and Decision Graphs. 2. New York: Springer; 2007.
    1. Zhu J, Hastie T. Classification of gene microarrays by penalized logistic regression. Biostatistics. 2004;5(3):427–443. doi: 10.1093/biostatistics/kxg046.
    1. Cohen J, Cohen P, West SG, Aiken LS. Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences. 3. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; 2003.

Source: PubMed

스폰서 및 공동 작업자

건강 상태

약물 개입

3
구독하다