Autism spectrum disorder

Catherine Lord, Mayada Elsabbagh, Gillian Baird, Jeremy Veenstra-Vanderweele, Catherine Lord, Mayada Elsabbagh, Gillian Baird, Jeremy Veenstra-Vanderweele

Abstract

Autism spectrum disorder is a term used to describe a constellation of early-appearing social communication deficits and repetitive sensory-motor behaviours associated with a strong genetic component as well as other causes. The outlook for many individuals with autism spectrum disorder today is brighter than it was 50 years ago; more people with the condition are able to speak, read, and live in the community rather than in institutions, and some will be largely free from symptoms of the disorder by adulthood. Nevertheless, most individuals will not work full-time or live independently. Genetics and neuroscience have identified intriguing patterns of risk, but without much practical benefit yet. Considerable work is still needed to understand how and when behavioural and medical treatments can be effective, and for which children, including those with substantial comorbidities. It is also important to implement what we already know and develop services for adults with autism spectrum disorder. Clinicians can make a difference by providing timely and individualised help to families navigating referrals and access to community support systems, by providing accurate information despite often unfiltered media input, and by anticipating transitions such as family changes and school entry and leaving.

Conflict of interest statement

Declaration of interests

CL receives royalties from sales of the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADIR), Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS), and Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule 2nd edition (ADOS-2); she donates all proceeds related to her clinical or research activities to charity. JV-V has consulted or served on advisory boards for Roche, Novartis, and SynapDx, has received research funding from Roche, Novartis, SynapDx, Seaside Therapeutics, and Forest, and receives stipends for editorial service from Wiley and Springer. All other authors declare no competing interests.

Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

References

    1. Kanner L Autistic disturbances of affective contact. Nervous Child 1943; 2: 217–50.
    1. Lavelle TA, Weinstein MC, Newhouse JP, Munir K, Kuhlthau KA, Prosser LA. Economic burden of childhood autism spectrum disorders. Pediatrics 2014; 133: e520–29.
    1. Khan NZ, Gallo LA, Arghir A, et al. Autism and the grand challenges in global mental health. Autism Res 2012; 5: 156–59.
    1. Bauman ML, Kemper TL. Neuroanatomic observations of the brain in autism: a review and future directions. Int J Dev Neurosci 2005; 23: 183–87.
    1. O’Reilly C, Lewis JD, Elsabbagh M . Is functional brain connectivity atypical in autism? A systematic review of EEG and MEG studies. PLoS One 2017; 12: e0175870.
    1. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), 5th edn Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association Publishing, 2013.
    1. Lord C, Petkova E, Hus V, et al. A multisite study of the clinical diagnosis of different autism spectrum disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2012; 69: 306–13.
    1. Maenner MJ, Rice CE, Arneson CL, et al. Potential impact of DSM-5 criteria on autism spectrum disorder prevalence estimates. JAMA Psychiatry 2014; 71: 292–300.
    1. Weitlauf AS, Gotham KO, Vehorn AC, Warren ZE. Brief report: DSM-5 “levels of support:” a comment on discrepant conceptualizations of severity in ASD. J Autism Dev Disord 2014; 44: 471–76.
    1. Mandell D, Mandy W. Should all young children be screened for autism spectrum disorder? Autism 2015; 19: 895–96.
    1. Havdahl KA, Bishop SL, Surén P, et al. The influence of parental concern on the utility of autism diagnostic instruments. Autism Res 2017; 10: 1672–86.
    1. Pierce K, Carter C, Weinfeld M, et al. Detecting, studying, and treating autism early: the one-year well-baby check-up approach. J Pediatr 2011; 159: 458–65.e1–6.
    1. McConachie H, Parr JR, Glod M, et al. Systematic review of tools to measure outcomes for young children with autism spectrum disorder. Health Technol Assess 2015; 19: 1–506.
    1. Emerson ND, Morrell HER, Neece C. Predictors of age of diagnosis for children with autism spectrum disorder: The role of a consistent source of medical care, race, and condition severity. J Autism Dev Disord 2016; 46: 127–38.
    1. Sicherman N, Loewenstein G, Tavassoli T, Buxbaum JD. Grandma knows best: Family structure and age of diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder. Autism 2018; 22: 368–76.
    1. Weitlauf AS, McPheeters ML, Peters B, et al. Therapies for children with autism spectrum disorder: behavioral interventions update. Comparative Effectiveness Review No. 137. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, 2014.
    1. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Autism spectrum disorder in adults: diagnosis and management. June 27, 2012. (accessed July 11, 2018).
    1. Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network. SIGN 145: Assessment, diagnosis and interventions for autism spectrum disorders. Edinburgh: Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network, 2016.
    1. Lord C, McGee J. Educating children with autism spectrum disorders: report of the Committee on Early Intervention in Autism. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences, 2001.
    1. Kim SH, Lord C. Combining information from multiple sources for the diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders for toddlers and young preschoolers from 12 to 47 months of age. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2012; 53: 143–51.
    1. Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network Surveillance Year 2010 Principal Investigators; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Prevalence of autism spectrum disorder among children aged 8 years—Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network, 11 sites, United States, 2010. MMWR Surveill Summ 2014; 63: 1–21.
    1. Dykens EM, Fisher MH, Taylor JL, Lambert W, Miodrag N. Reducing distress in mothers of children with autism and other disabilities: a randomized trial. Pediatrics 2014; 134: e454–63.
    1. Wetherby AM, Guthrie W, Woods J, et al. Parent-implemented social intervention for toddlers with autism: an RCT. Pediatrics 2014; 134: 1084–93.
    1. Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network Surveillance Year 2008 Principal Investigators; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Prevalence of autism spectrum disorders—Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network, 14 Sites, United States, 2008. MMWR Surveill Summ 2012; 61: 1–19.
    1. Baron-Cohen S, Wheelwright S, Skinner R, Martin J, Clubley E. The autism-spectrum quotient (AQ): evidence from Asperger syndrome/high-functioning autism, males and females, scientists and mathematicians. J Autism Dev Disord 2001; 31: 5–17.
    1. Department for Education. Special educational needs in England: January 2017. July 27, 2017. (accessed July 11, 2018).
    1. Havdahl KA, von Tetzchner S, Huerta M, Lord C, Bishop SL. Utility of the child behavior checklist as a screener for autism spectrum disorder. Autism Res 2016; 9: 33–42.
    1. Brugha TS, McManus S, Bankart J, et al. Epidemiology of autism spectrum disorders in adults in the community in England. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2011; 68: 459–65.
    1. Bishop SL, Seltzer MM. Self-reported autism symptoms in adults with autism spectrum disorders. J Autism Dev Disord 2012; 42: 2354–63.
    1. Ashwood KL, Gillan N, Horder J, et al. Predicting the diagnosis of autism in adults using the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) questionnaire. Psychol Med 2016; 46: 2595–604.
    1. Happé FG, Mansour H, Barrett P, Brown T, Abbott P, Charlton RA. Demographic and cognitive profile of individuals seeking a diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder in adulthood. J Autism Dev Disord 2016; 46: 3469–80.
    1. Schendel DE, Overgaard M, Christensen J, et al. Association of psychiatric and neurologic comorbidity with mortality among persons with autism spectrum disorder in a Danish population. JAMA Pediatr 2016; 170: 243–50.
    1. Hirvikoski T, Mittendorfer-Rutz E, Boman M, Larsson H, Lichtenstein P, Bölte S. Premature mortality in autism spectrum disorder. Br J Psychiatry 2016; 208: 232–38.
    1. Anderson DK, Liang JW, Lord C. Predicting young adult outcome among more and less cognitively able individuals with autism spectrum disorders. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2014; 55: 485–94.
    1. Howlin P, Moss P, Savage S, Rutter M. Social outcomes in mid- to later adulthood among individuals diagnosed with autism and average nonverbal IQ as children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2013; 52: 572–81.e1.
    1. Mandy W, Clarke K, McKenner M, et al. Assessing Autism in Adults: An Evaluation of the Developmental, Dimensional and Diagnostic Interview-Adult Version (3Di-Adult). J Autism Dev Disord 2018; 48: 549–60.
    1. Chan W, Smith LE, Hong J, Greenberg JS, Mailick MR. Validating the social responsiveness scale for adults with autism. Autism Res 2017; 10: 1663–71.
    1. Hus V, Lord C. The autism diagnostic observation schedule, module 4: revised algorithm and standardized severity scores. J Autism Dev Disord 2014; 44: 1996–2012.
    1. Brugha TS. The psychiatry of adult autism and Asperger syndrome: a practical guide. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018.
    1. Halladay AK, Bishop S, Constantino JN, et al. Sex and gender differences in autism spectrum disorder: summarizing evidence gaps and identifying emerging areas of priority. Mol Autism 2015; 6: 36.
    1. Bishop DVM, Snowling MJ, Thompson PA, Greenhalgh T. Phase 2 of CATALISE: a multinational and multidisciplinary Delphi consensus study of problems with language development: terminology. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2017; 58: 1068–80.
    1. Simonoff E, Pickles A, Charman T, Chandler S, Loucas T, Baird G. Psychiatric disorders in children with autism spectrum disorders: prevalence, comorbidity, and associated factors in a population-derived sample. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2008; 47: 921–29.
    1. Hartman CA, Geurts HM, Franke B, Buitelaar JK, Rommelse NNJ. Changing ASD-ADHD symptom co-occurrence across the lifespan with adolescence as crucial time window: Illustrating the need to go beyond childhood. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2016; 71: 529–41.
    1. Ung D, Wood JJ, Ehrenreich-May J, et al. Clinical characteristics of high-functioning youth with autism spectrum disorder and anxiety. Neuropsychiatry (London) 2013; 3: 147–57.
    1. Gotham K, Brunwasser SM, Lord C. Depressive and anxiety symptom trajectories from school age through young adulthood in samples with autism spectrum disorder and developmental delay. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2015; 54: 369–76.e3.
    1. Hill AP, Zuckerman KE, Hagen AD, et al. Aggressive behavior problems in children with autism spectrum disorders: Prevalence and correlates in a large clinical sample. Res Autism Spectr Disord 2014; 8: 1121–33.
    1. Clark ML, Barbaro J, Dissanayake C. Continuity and change in cognition and autism severity from toddlerhood to school age. J Autism Dev Disord 2017; 47: 328–39.
    1. Pickles A, Anderson DK, Lord C. Heterogeneity and plasticity in the development of language: a 17-year follow-up of children referred early for possible autism. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2014; 55: 1354–62.
    1. Jones RM, Pickles A, Lord C. Evaluating the quality of peer interactions in children and adolescents with autism with the Penn Interactive Peer Play Scale (PIPPS). Mol Autism 2017; 8: 28.
    1. Elsabbagh M, Divan G, Koh YJ, et al. Global prevalence of autism and other pervasive developmental disorders. Autism Res 2012; 5: 160–79.
    1. Lyall K, Croen L, Daniels J, et al. The changing epidemiology of autism spectrum disorders. Annu Rev Public Health 2017; 38: 81–102.
    1. Mandell DS, Barry CL, Marcus SC, et al. Effects of autism spectrum disorder insurance mandates on the treated prevalence of autism spectrum disorder. JAMA Pediatr 2016; 170: 887–93.
    1. Mandy W, Lai MC. Towards sex- and gender-informed autism research. Autism 2017; 21: 643–45.
    1. Idring S, Magnusson C, Lundberg M, et al. Parental age and the risk of autism spectrum disorders: findings from a Swedish population-based cohort. Int J Epidemiol 2014; 43: 107–15.
    1. Zerbo O, Yoshida C, Gunderson EP, Dorward K, Croen LA. Interpregnancy interval and risk of autism spectrum disorders. Pediatrics 2015; 136: 651–57.
    1. Lyall K, Ashwood P, Van de Water J, Hertz-Picciotto I. Maternal immune-mediated conditions, autism spectrum disorders, and developmental delay. J Autism Dev Disord 2014; 44: 1546–55.
    1. Christensen J, Grønborg TK, Sørensen MJ, et al. Prenatal valproate exposure and risk of autism spectrum disorders and childhood autism. JAMA 2013; 309: 1696–703.
    1. Brown HK, Ray JG, Wilton AS, Lunsky Y, Gomes T, Vigod SN. Association between serotonergic antidepressant use during pregnancy and autism spectrum disorder in children. JAMA 2017; 317: 1544–52.
    1. Lampi KM, Lehtonen L, Tran PL, et al. Risk of autism spectrum disorders in low birth weight and small for gestational age infants. J Pediatr 2012; 161: 830–36.
    1. Moore GS, Kneitel AW, Walker CK, Gilbert WM, Xing G. Autism risk in small- and large-for-gestational-age infants. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2012; 206: 314.e1–9.
    1. Schmidt RJ, Tancredi DJ, Ozonoff S, et al. Maternal periconceptional folic acid intake and risk of autism spectrum disorders and developmental delay in the CHARGE (CHildhood Autism Risks from Genetics and Environment) case-control study. Am J Clin Nutr 2012; 96: 80–89.
    1. Zerbo O, Qian Y, Yoshida C, Fireman BH, Klein NP, Croen LA. Association between influenza infection and vaccination during pregnancy and risk of autism spectrum disorder. JAMA Pediatr 2017; 171: e163609.
    1. Charman T, Pickles A, Simonoff E, Chandler S, Loucas T, Baird G. IQ in children with autism spectrum disorders: data from the Special Needs and Autism Project (SNAP). Psychol Med 2011; 41: 619–27.
    1. Jones CR, Happé F, Golden H, et al. Reading and arithmetic in adolescents with autism spectrum disorders: peaks and dips in attainment. Neuropsychology 2009; 23: 718–28.
    1. Kim SH, Bal VH, Lord C. Longitudinal follow-up of academic achievement in children with autism from age 2 to 18. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2018; 59: 258–67.
    1. Woynaroski T, Yoder P, Watson LR. Atypical cross-modal profiles and longitudinal associations between vocabulary scores in initially minimally verbal children with ASD. Autism Res 2016; 9: 301–10.
    1. Fountain C, Winter AS, Bearman PS. Six developmental trajectories characterize children with autism. Pediatrics 2012; 129: e1112–20.
    1. Sivertsen B, Posserud M-B, Gillberg C, Lundervold AJ, Hysing M. Sleep problems in children with autism spectrum problems: a longitudinal population-based study. Autism 2012; 16: 139–50.
    1. Soke GN, Maenner MJ, Christensen D, Kurzius-Spencer M, Schieve LA. Prevalence of co-occurring medical and behavioral conditions/symptoms among 4- and 8-year-old children with autism spectrum disorder in selected areas of the United States in 2010. J Autism Dev Disord 2018; published online March 9. DOI:10.1007/s10803-018-3521-1.
    1. Curtin C, Hubbard K, Anderson SE, Mick E, Must A, Bandini LG. Food selectivity, mealtime behavior problems, spousal stress, and family food choices in children with and without autism spectrum disorder. J Autism Dev Disord 2015; 45: 3308–15.
    1. Must A, Eliasziw M, Phillips SM, et al. The effect of age on the prevalence of obesity among US youth with autism spectrum disorder. Child Obes 2017; 13: 25–35.
    1. Chaidez V, Hansen RL, Hertz-Picciotto I. Gastrointestinal problems in children with autism, developmental delays or typical development. J Autism Dev Disord 2014; 44: 1117–27.
    1. Gorrindo P, Williams KC, Lee EB, Walker LS, McGrew SG, Levitt P. Gastrointestinal dysfunction in autism: parental report, clinical evaluation, and associated factors. Autism Res 2012; 5: 101–08.
    1. Thomas S, Hovinga ME, Rai D, Lee BK. Brief report: prevalence of co-occurring epilepsy and autism spectrum disorder: the U.S. National Survey of Children’s Health 2011–2012. J Autism Dev Disord 2017; 47: 224–29.
    1. Tick B, Bolton P, Happé F, Rutter M, Rijsdijk F. Heritability of autism spectrum disorders: a meta-analysis of twin studies. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2016; 57: 585–95.
    1. Ozonoff S, Young GS, Carter A, et al. Recurrence risk for autism spectrum disorders: a Baby Siblings Research Consortium study. Pediatrics 2011; 128: e488–95.
    1. Sandin S, Lichtenstein P, Kuja-Halkola R, Larsson H, Hultman CM, Reichenberg A. The familial risk of autism. JAMA 2014; 311: 1770–77.
    1. Messinger DS, Young GS, Webb SJ, et al. Early sex differences are not autism-specific: A Baby Siblings Research Consortium (BSRC) study. Mol Autism 2015; 6: 32.
    1. Gaugler T, Klei L, Sanders SJ, et al. Most genetic risk for autism resides with common variation. Nat Genet 2014; 46: 881–85.
    1. Weiner DJ, Wigdor EM, Ripke S, et al. Polygenic transmission disequilibrium confirms that common and rare variation act additively to create risk for autism spectrum disorders. Nat Genet 2017; 49: 978–85.
    1. Niu M, Han Y, Dy ABC, et al. Autism symptoms in fragile X syndrome. J Child Neurol 2017; 32: 903–09.
    1. Sundberg M, Sahin M. Cerebellar development and autism spectrum disorder in tuberous sclerosis complex. J Child Neurol 2015; 30: 1954–62.
    1. Duyzend MH, Nuttle X, Coe BP, et al. Maternal modifiers and parent-of-origin bias of the autism-associated 16p11.2 CNV. Am J Hum Genet 2016; 98: 45–57.
    1. Kalsner L, Chamberlain SJ. Prader-Willi, Angelman, and 15q11–q13 duplication syndromes. Pediatr Clin North Am 2015; 62: 587–606.
    1. Bernier R, Golzio C, Xiong B, et al. Disruptive CHD8 mutations define a subtype of autism early in development. Cell 2014; 158: 263–76.
    1. C Yuen RK, Merico D, Bookman M, et al. Whole genome sequencing resource identifies 18 new candidate genes for autism spectrum disorder. Nat Neurosci 2017; 20: 602–11.
    1. Krumm N, Turner TN, Baker C, et al. Excess of rare, inherited truncating mutations in autism. Nat Genet 2015; 47: 582–88.
    1. Shea L, Newschaffer CJ, Xie M, Myers SM, Mandell DS. Genetic testing and genetic counseling among Medicaid-enrolled children with autism spectrum disorder in 2001 and 2007. Hum Genet 2014; 133: 111–16.
    1. Geschwind DH, State MW. Gene hunting in autism spectrum disorder: on the path to precision medicine. Lancet Neurol 2015; 14: 1109–20.
    1. Hazlett HC, Gu H, Munsell BC, et al. Early brain development in infants at high risk for autism spectrum disorder. Nature 2017; 542: 348–51.
    1. Ecker C, Bookheimer SY, Murphy DG. Neuroimaging in autism spectrum disorder: brain structure and function across the lifespan. Lancet Neurol 2015; 14: 1121–34.
    1. Lewis JD, Evans AC, Pruett JR, et al. Network inefficiencies in autism spectrum disorder at 24 months. Transl Psychiatry 2014; 4: e388.
    1. Rane P, Cochran D, Hodge SM, Haselgrove C, Kennedy DN, Frazier JA. Connectivity in autism: a review of MRI connectivity studies. Harv Rev Psychiatry 2015; 23: 223–44.
    1. Elsabbagh M, Johnson MH. Autism and the social brain: The first-year puzzle. Biol Psychiatry 2016; 80: 94–99.
    1. Raznahan A, Wallace GL, Antezana L, et al. Compared to what? Early brain overgrowth in autism and the perils of population norms. Biol Psychiatry 2013; 74: 563–75.
    1. Salomone E, Beranová Š, Bonnet-Brilhault F, et al. Use of early intervention for young children with autism spectrum disorder across Europe. Autism 2016; 20: 233–49.
    1. Sealy J, Glovinsky IP. Strengthening the reflective functioning capacities of parents who have a child with a neurodevelopmental disability through a brief, relationship-focused intervention. Infant Ment Health J 2016; 37: 115–24.
    1. Oono IP, Honey EJ, McConachie H. Parent-mediated early intervention for young children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013; CD009774.
    1. Rogers S Early Start Denver Model In: Romanczyk RG, McEachin J (eds). Comprehensive models of autism spectrum disorder treatment. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2016: 45–62.
    1. Schreibman L, Dawson G, Stahmer AC, et al. Naturalistic developmental behavioral interventions: empirically validated treatments for autism spectrum disorder. J Autism Dev Disord 2015; 45: 2411–28.
    1. Green J, Charman T, McConachie H, et al., and the PACT Consortium. Parent-mediated communication-focused treatment in children with autism (PACT): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2010; 375: 2152–60.
    1. Prizant BM, Wetherby AM, Rubin E, Laurent AC, Rydell PJ. The SCERTS model: a comprehensive educational approach for children with autism spectrum disorders, 1st edn Baltimore: Brookes Publishing, 2005.
    1. Pickles A, Le Couteur A, Leadbitter K, et al. Parent-mediated social communication therapy for young children with autism (PACT): long-term follow-up of a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2016; 388: 2501–09.
    1. Carter AS, Messinger DS, Stone WL, Celimli S, Nahmias AS, Yoder P. A randomized controlled trial of Hanen’s ‘More Than Words’ in toddlers with early autism symptoms. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2011; 52: 741–52.
    1. Reichow B, Barton EE, Boyd BA, Hume K. Early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI) for young children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2012; 10: CD009260.
    1. Mesibov GB, Shea V, Schopler E. The TEACCH approach to autism spectrum disorders. New York: Springer Science & Business Media, 2005.
    1. Hampton LH, Kaiser AP. Intervention effects on spoken-language outcomes for children with autism: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Intellect Disabil Res 2016; 60: 444–63.
    1. Weitlauf AS, Sathe NA, McPheeters ML, Warren Z. Interventions targeting sensory challenges in children with autism spectrum disorder—an update. Comparative Effectiveness Review No. 186. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, 2017.
    1. Silva LM, Schalock M, Gabrielsen KR, Budden SS, Buenrostro M, Horton G. Early intervention with a parent-delivered massage protocol directed at tactile abnormalities decreases severity of autism and improves child-to-parent interactions: A replication study. Autism Res Treat 2015; 2015: 904585.
    1. Gates JA, Kang E, Lerner MD. Efficacy of group social skills interventions for youth with autism spectrum disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Psychol Rev 2017; 52 (suppl C): 164–81.
    1. Kenworthy L, Anthony LG, Naiman DQ, et al. Randomized controlled effectiveness trial of executive function intervention for children on the autism spectrum. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2014; 55: 374–83.
    1. Hutchins TL, Prelock PA. The social validity of Social Stories™ for supporting the behavioural and communicative functioning of children with autism spectrum disorder. Int J Speech-Language Pathol 2013; 15: 383–95.
    1. Wood JJ, Drahota A, Sze K, Har K, Chiu A, Langer DA. Cognitive behavioral therapy for anxiety in children with autism spectrum disorders: a randomized, controlled trial. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2009; 50: 224–34.
    1. McConachie H, McLaughlin E, Grahame V, et al. Group therapy for anxiety in children with autism spectrum disorder. Autism 2014; 18: 723–32.
    1. Reaven J, Blakeley-Smith A, Culhane-Shelburne K, Hepburn S. Group cognitive behavior therapy for children with high-functioning autism spectrum disorders and anxiety: a randomized trial. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2012; 53: 410–19.
    1. Santomauro D, Sheffield J, Sofronoff K. Depression in adolescents with ASD: A pilot RCT of a group intervention. J Autism Dev Disord 2016; 46: 572–88.
    1. Mazurek MO, Lu F, Symecko H, et al. A prospective study of the concordance of DSM-IV and DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for autism spectrum disorder. J Autism Dev Disord 2017; 47: 2783–94.
    1. Bearss K, Johnson C, Smith T, et al. Effect of parent training vs parent education on behavioral problems in children with autism spectrum disorder: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2015; 313: 1524–33.
    1. Green J, Absoud M, Grahame V, et al. Pathological demand avoidance: symptoms but not a syndrome. Lancet Child Adolesc Health 2018; 2: 455–64.
    1. O’Nions E, Viding E, Greven CU, Ronald A, Happé F. Pathological demand avoidance: exploring the behavioural profile. Autism 2014; 18: 538–44.
    1. Cimera RE, Wehman P, West M, Burgess S. Do sheltered workshops enhance employment outcomes for adults with autism spectrum disorder? Autism 2012; 16: 87–94.
    1. Jamison JM, Fourie E, Siper PM, et al. Examining the efficacy of a family peer advocate model for black and hispanic caregivers of children with autism spectrum disorder. J Autism Dev Disord 2017; 47: 1314–22.
    1. Kent JM, Kushner S, Ning X, et al. Risperidone dosing in children and adolescents with autistic disorder: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Autism Dev Disord 2013; 43: 1773–83.
    1. Owen R, Sikich L, Marcus RN, et al. Aripiprazole in the treatment of irritability in children and adolescents with autistic disorder. Pediatrics 2009; 124: 1533–40.
    1. Fung LK, Mahajan R, Nozzolillo A, et al. Pharmacologic treatment of severe irritability and problem behaviors in autism: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Pediatrics 2016; 137 (suppl 2): S124–35.
    1. Politte LC, McDougle CJ. Atypical antipsychotics in the treatment of children and adolescents with pervasive developmental disorders. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2014; 231: 1023–36.
    1. Anagnostou E, Aman MG, Handen BL, et al. Metformin for treatment of overweight induced by atypical antipsychotic medication in young people with autism spectrum disorder: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry 2016; 73: 928–37.
    1. Sturman N, Deckx L, van Driel ML. Methylphenidate for children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2017; 11: CD011144.
    1. Handen BL, Aman MG, Arnold LE, et al. Atomoxetine, parent training, and their combination in children with autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2015; 54: 905–15.
    1. Scahill L, McCracken JT, King BH, et al., and the Research Units on Pediatric Psychopharmacology Autism Network. Extended-release guanfacine for hyperactivity in children with autism spectrum disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2015; 172: 1197–206.
    1. Lee BH, Smith T, Paciorkowski AR. Autism spectrum disorder and epilepsy: Disorders with a shared biology. Epilepsy Behav 2015; 47: 191–201.
    1. Levy SE, Hyman SL. Complementary and alternative medicine treatments for children with autism spectrum disorders. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 2015; 24: 117–43.
    1. Singh K, Connors SL, Macklin EA, et al. Sulforaphane treatment of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2014; 111: 15550–55.
    1. Frye RE, Sequeira JM, Quadros EV, James SJ, Rossignol DA. Cerebral folate receptor autoantibodies in autism spectrum disorder. Mol Psychiatry 2013; 18: 369–81.
    1. Singer A, Ravi R. Complementary and alternative treatments for autism part 2: identifying and avoiding non-evidence-based treatments. AMA J Ethics 2015; 17: 375–80.
    1. Mandell DS, Xie M, Morales KH, Lawer L, McCarthy M, Marcus SC. The interplay of outpatient services and psychiatric hospitalization among Medicaid-enrolled children with autism spectrum disorders. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2012; 166: 68–73.
    1. Rahman A, Divan G, Hamdani SU, et al. Effectiveness of the parent-mediated intervention for children with autism spectrum disorder in south Asia in India and Pakistan (PASS): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet Psychiatry 2016; 3: 128–36.
    1. Pellicano E, Dinsmore A, Charman T. What should autism research focus upon? Community views and priorities from the United Kingdom. Autism 2014; 18: 756–70.

Source: PubMed

스폰서 및 공동 작업자

건강 상태

약물 개입

3
구독하다