A randomized controlled trial of brain training with non-action video games in older adults: results of the 3-month follow-up

Soledad Ballesteros, Julia Mayas, Antonio Prieto, Pilar Toril, Carmen Pita, Ponce de León Laura, José M Reales, John A Waterworth, Soledad Ballesteros, Julia Mayas, Antonio Prieto, Pilar Toril, Carmen Pita, Ponce de León Laura, José M Reales, John A Waterworth

Abstract

This randomized controlled study (ClinicalTrials.gov NCT02007616) investigated the maintenance of training effects of 20 1-hr non-action video game training sessions with selected games from a commercial package on several age-declining cognitive functions and subjective wellbeing after a 3-month no-contact period. Two groups of cognitively normal older adults participated in both the post-training (posttest) and the present follow-up study, the experimental group who received training and the control group who attended several meetings with the research team during the study but did not receive training. Groups were similar at baseline on demographics, vocabulary, global cognition, and depression status. Significant improvements in the trained group, and no variation in the control group had been previously found at posttest, in processing speed, attention and visual recognition memory, as well as in two dimensions of subjective wellbeing. In the current study, improvement from baseline to 3 months follow-up was found only in wellbeing (Affection and Assertivity dimensions) in the trained group whereas there was no change in the control group. Previous significant improvements in processing speed, attention and spatial memory become non-significant after the 3-month interval. Training older adults with non-action video games enhanced aspects of cognition just after training but this effect disappeared after a 3-month no-contact follow-up period. Cognitive plasticity can be induced in older adults by training, but to maintain the benefits periodic boosting sessions would be necessary.

Keywords: brain plasticity; clinical trial; cognitive aging; non-action video games; wellbeing.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
CONSORT flowchart with the follow-up information.
Figure 2
Figure 2
Mean performance of trained (solid lines) and control groups (dashed lines) at pretest, posttest and 3-month follow-up. (A) Distraction effects in the Cross-modal oddball attention task. (B) Alertness effects in the attention task. (C) Simple reaction time task. (D) Choice reaction time task. (E) Family pictures I, Immediate. (F) Family pictures II, Delayed. Bars represent standard error of the mean (SE); * p < 0.05.
Figure 3
Figure 3
Mean performance of trained (solid lines) and control groups (dashed lines) at pretest, posttest and 3-month follow-up in subjective wellbeing: (Right) Assertivity; (Left) Affection. Bars represent standard error of the mean (SE); * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.001.

References

    1. Ackerman P. L., Kanfer R., Calderwood C. (2010). Use it or lose it? Wii brain exercise practice and reading for domain knowledge. Psychol. Aging 25, 753–766. 10.1037/a0019277
    1. Anguera J. A., Boccanfuso J., Rintoul J. L., Al-Hashimi O., Faraji F., Janowich J., et al. . (2013). Video game training enhances cognitive control in older adults. Nature 501, 97–101. 10.1038/nature12486
    1. Baddeley A. D., Hitch G. (1974). Working memory, in The Psychology of Learning and Motivation, eds Bower G.H. (New York, NY: Academic Press; ), 47–89.
    1. Ball K., Berch D. B., Helmer K. F., Jobe J. B., Leveck M. D., Marsiske M., et al. . (2002). Effects of cognitive training interventions with older adults: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 288, 2271–2281. 10.1001/jama.296.23.2805
    1. Ballesteros S., Reales J. M., Mayas J., Heller M. A. (2008). Selective attention modulates visual and haptic repetition priming: effects on aging and Alzheimers' disease. Exp. Brain Res. 189, 473–483.
    1. Ballesteros S., González M., Mayas J., Reales J. M., García B. (2009). Cross-modal object priming in young and older adults: multisensory processing in vision, touch, and audition. Eur. J. Cogn. Psychol. 21, 366–387 10.1080/09541440802311956
    1. Ballesteros S., Bischof G. N., Goh J. O., Park D. C. (2013a). Neural correlates of conceptual object priming in young and older adults: an event-related fMRI study. Neurobiol. Aging 34, 1254–1264. 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2012.09.019
    1. Ballesteros S., Mayas J., Reales J. M. (2013b). Cognitive function in normal aging and in older adults with mild cognitive impairment. Psicothema 25, 18–24. 10.7334/psicothema2012.181
    1. Ballesteros S., Mayas J., Reales J. M. (2013c). Effects of a long-term physically active lifestyle on cognitive functioning in older adults. Curr. Aging Sci. 6, 189–198 10.2174/18746098112059990001
    1. Ballesteros S., Prieto A., Mayas J., Toril P., Pita C., Ponce de León L., et al. . (2014). Training older adults with non-action video games enhances cognitive functions that decline with aging: a randomized controlled trial. Front. Aging Neurosci. 6:277. 10.3389/fnagi.2014.00277
    1. Ballesteros S., Reales J. M. (2004). Intact haptic priming in normal aging and Alzheimer's disease: evidence for dissociable memory systems. Neuropsychologia 44, 1063–1070. 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2003.12.008
    1. Baltes P. B., Lindenberger U. (1997). Emergence of a powerful connection between sensory and cognitive functions across the adult life span: a new window to the study of cognitive aging? Psychol. Aging 12, 12–21. 10.1037/0882-7974.12.1.12
    1. Barulli D., Stern Y. (2013). Efficiency, capacity, compensation, maintenance, plasticity: emerging concepts in cognitive reserve. Trends Cogn. Sci. 17502–509. 10.1016/j.tics.2013.08.012
    1. Basak C., Boot W. R., Voss M. W., Kramer A. F. (2008). Can training in real-time strategy video game attenuate cognitive decline in older adults? Psychol. Aging 23, 765–777. 10.1037/a0013494
    1. Bavelier D., Green C. S., Pouget A., Schacter P. (2012). Brain plasticity through the lifespan: learning to learn and action video games. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 35, 391–416. 10.1146/annurev-neuro-060909-152832
    1. Berry A. S., Zanto T. P., Clapp W. C., Hardy J. L., Delahunt P. B., Mhancke H. W., et al. . (2010). The influence of perceptual training on working memory in older adults. PLoS ONE 5:e11537. 10.1371/journal.pone.0011537
    1. Bherer L., Kramer A. F., Peterson M. S., Colcombe S., Erickson K., Becic E. (2006). Testing the limits of cognitive plasticity in older adults: application to attentional control. Acta Psychol. 123, 261–278. 10.1016/j.actpsy.2006.01.005
    1. Bialystok E., Craik F. I. M. (2006). Lifespan Cognition: Mechanisms of Change. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195169539.001.0001
    1. Boot W. R., Champion M., Blakely D. P., Wright T., Souders D. J., Charness N. (2013a). Video games as a means to reduce age-related cognitive decline: attitudes, compliance, and effectiveness. Front. Psychol. 4:31. 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00031
    1. Boot W. R., Simons D. J., Stothart C., Stutts C. (2013b). The pervasive problem with placebos in psychology. Why active control groups are not sufficient to rule out placebo effects. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 8, 445–454 10.1177/1745691613491271
    1. Brehmer Y., Li S. C., Muller V., von Oertzen T., Lindenberger U. (2007). Memory plasticity across the life span: uncovering children's latent potential. Dev. Psychol. 43, 465–478. 10.1037/0012-1649.43.2.465
    1. Brookmeyer R., Evans D. A., Hebert L., Langa K. M., Heeringa S. G., Plassman B. L., et al. . (2011). National estimates of the prevalence of Alzheimer's disease in the United States. Alzheimer Dement. 7, 61–73. 10.1016/j.jalz.2010.11.007
    1. Buitenweg J. I. V., Murre J. M. J., Ridderinkhof K. R. (2012). Brain training in progress: a review of trainability in healthy seniors. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 6:183. 10.3389/fnhum.2012.00183
    1. Buschkuehl M., Jaeggi S. M., Hutchison S., Perrig-Chiello P., Däpp C., Müller M., et al. . (2008). Impact of working memory training on memory performance in old-old adults. Psychol. Aging 23, 743–753. 10.1037/a0014342
    1. Cassavaugh N. D., Kramer A. F. (2009). Transfer of computer based training to simulated driving in older adults. Appl. Ergon. 40, 943–952. 10.1016/j.apergo.2009.02.001
    1. Cheng Y., Wu W., Feng W., Wang J., Chen Y., Shen Y., et al. . (2012). The effects of multi-domain versus single-domain cognitive training in non-demented older people: a randomized controlled trial. BMC Med. 10:30. 10.1186/1741-7015-10-30
    1. Clark J. E., Lamphear A. K., Riddick C. C. (1987). The effects of videogame playing on the response selection processing of elderly adults. J. Gerontol. 42, 82–85. 10.1093/geronj/42.1.82
    1. Craik F. I. M., Bialystok E. (2006). Cognition through the lifespan: mechanisms of change. Trends Cogn. Sci. 10, 131–139. 10.1016/j.tics.2006.01.007
    1. Craik F. I. M., Winocur G., Palmer H., Binns M. A., Edwards M., Bridges K., et al. . (2007). Cognitive rehabilitation in the elderly: effects on memory. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 13, 132–142. 10.1017/S1355617707070166
    1. Dahlin E., Nyberg L., Bäckman L., Neely A. S. (2008). Plasticity of executive functioning in young and older adults: immediate training gains, transfer, and long-term maintenance. Psycholog. Aging 23, 720–730. 10.1037/a0014296
    1. Edwards J. D., Wadley V. G., Vance D. E., Wood K., Roenker D. L., Ball K. K. (2005). The impact of speed of processing training on cognitive and everyday performance. Aging Ment. Health 9, 262–271. 10.1080/13607860412331336788
    1. Erickson K. I., Colcombe S. J., Wadhwa R., Bherer L., Peterson M. S., Scalf P. E., et al. . (2007). Training- induced plasticity in older adults: effects of training on hemispheric asymmetry. Neurobiol. Aging 28, 272–283. 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2005.12.012
    1. Folstein M. F., Folstein S. E., McHugh P. R. (1975). Mini-mental state. A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician. J. Psychiatr. Res 12, 189–1998. 10.1016/0022-3956(75)90026-6
    1. Gabrieli J. D. E. (1998). Cognitive neuroscience of human memory. Ann. Rev. Psychol. 49, 87–115. 10.1146/annurev.psych.49.1.87
    1. Goh J. O., Park D. C. (2009). Neuroplasticity and cognitive aging: the scaffolding theory of aging and cognition. Restor. Neurol. Neurosci. 27, 391–403. 10.3233/RNN-2009-0493
    1. Goldstein J., Cajko L., Oosterbroek M., Michielsen M., Van Houten O., Saavedra F., et al. (1997). Videogame and elderly. Soc. Behav. Pers. 25, 345–352 10.2224/sbp.1997.25.4.345
    1. Gunning-Dixon F. M., Raz N. (2003). Neuroanatomical correlates of selected executive functions in middle-aged and older adults: a prospective MRI study. Neuropsychologia 41, 1929–1941. 10.1016/S0028-3932(03)00129-5
    1. Hampstead B. M., Shatian K., Phillips P. A., Amaraneni A., Delaune W. R., Stringer A. Y. (2012). Mnemonic strategy training improves memory for object location associations in both healthy elderly and patients with amnestic mild cognitive impairment: a randomized, single-blind study. Neuropsychology 26, 385–399 10.1037/a0027545
    1. Heaton R. K. (1981). A Manual for the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. Odessa, Fl: Western Psychological Services.
    1. Hedden T., Gabrieli J. D. E. (2004). Insights into the ageing mind: a view from cognitive neuroscience. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 5, 87–96. 10.1038/nrn1323
    1. Hertzog C., Kramer A. F., Wilson R. S., Lindenberger U. (2009). Enrichment effects on adult cognitive development. Psychol. Sci. Publ. Int. 9, 1–65 10.1111/j.1539-6053.2009.01034.x
    1. Hoyer W. J., Verhaeghen P. (2006). Memory aging, in Handbook of the Psychology of Aging, eds Birren J., Schaie W. (Burlington, MA: Elsevier Academic Press; ), 209–232 10.1016/B978-012101264-9/50013-6
    1. Karbach J. (2014). Game-based cognitive training for the aging brain. Front. Psychol. 5:1100. 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01100
    1. Karbach J., Kray J. (2009). How useful is executive control training? Age differences in near and far transfer of task-switching training. Dev. Sci. 12, 97–990. 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00846.x
    1. Karbach J., Verhaeghen P. (2014). Making working memory work: a meta-analysis of executive-control and working memory training in older adults. Psychol. Sci. 25, 2027–2037. 10.1177/0956797614548725
    1. Kempermann G., Gast D., Gage F. H. (2002). Neuroplasticity in old age: sustained five-fold induction of hippocampal neurogenesis by long-term environment enrichment. Ann. Neurol. 52, 135–143. 10.1002/ana.10262
    1. Kempermann G., Wiskott L., Gage F. H. (2004). Functional significance of adult neurogenesis. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 14, 186–191. 10.1016/j.conb.2004.03.001
    1. Knaepen K., Goekint M., Heyman E. M., Meeusen R. (2010). Neuroplasticity – Exercise-induced response to peripheral brain-derived neurotrophic factor. Sports Med. 40, 765–801. 10.2165/11534530-000000000-00000
    1. Kueider A. M., Parisi J. M., Gross A. L., Rebok G. W. (2012). Computerized cognitive training with older adults: a systematic review. PLoS ONE 7:e40588. 10.1371/journal.pone.0040588
    1. Lampit A., Hallock H., Valenzuela M. (2014). Computerized cognitive training in cognitively healthy older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of effect modifiers. PLoS Med. 11:e1001756. 10.1371/journal.pmed.1001756
    1. Lee S. C., Schmiedek F., Huxhold O., Röcke C., Smith J., Lindenberger U., et al. . (2008). Working memory plasticity in old age: practice gain, transfer, and maintenance. Psychol. Aging 23, 731–742. 10.1037/a0014343
    1. Lövdén M., Lindenberger U., Bäckman L., Schaefer S., Schmiedek F. (2010). A theoretical framework for the study of adult cognitive plasticity. Psychol. Bull. 136, 659–676. 10.1037/a0020080
    1. Mahncke H. W., Connor B. B., Appelman J., Ahsanuddin O. N., Hardy J. L., Wood R. A., et al. . (2006). Memory enhancement in healthy older adults using a brain plasticity-based training program: a randomized, controlled study. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 103, 12523–12528. 10.1073/pnas.0605194103
    1. Maillot P., Perrot A., Hartley A. (2012). Effects of interactive physical-activity videogame training on physical and cognitive function in older adults. Psychol. Aging 27, 289–600. 10.1037/a0026268
    1. Martínez J., Onís M. C., Dueñas H., Aguado C., Colomer C., Luque R. (2002). The Spanish version of the Yesavage Abbreviated Questionnaire (GDS) to screen depressive dysfunctions in patients older than 65 years. Medifam 12, 26–40 10.4321/S1131-57682002001000003
    1. Mayas J., Parmentier F. B. R., Andrés P., Ballesteros S. (2014). Plasticity of attentional functions in older adults after non-action video game training. PLoS ONE 9:e92269. 10.1371/journal.pone.0092269
    1. McDougall S., House B. (2012). Brain training in older adults: evidence of transfer to memory span performance and pseudo-Matthew effects. Neuropsychol. Dev. Cogn. B Aging Neuropsychol. Cogn. 19, 195–221. 10.1080/13825585.2011.640656
    1. Mitchell D. B., Bruss P. J. (2003). Age differences in implicit memory: conceptual, perceptual o methodological? Psychol. Aging 18, 807–822. 10.1037/0882-7974.18.4.807
    1. Mitchell M. B., Cimino C. R., Benitez A., Brown C. L., Gibbons L. E., Kennison R. F., et al. . (2012). Cognitively stimulating activities: effects on cognition across four studies with up to 21 years of longitudinal data. J. Aging Res. 2012:461592. 10.1155/2012/461592
    1. Mozolic J. L., Long A. B., Morgan A. R., Rawley-Payne M., Laurienti P. J. (2011). A cognitive training intervention improves modality-specific attention in a randomized controlled trial of healthy older adults. Neurobiol. Aging 32, 655–668. 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2009.04.013
    1. Nieboer A., Lindenberg S., Boomsma A., Bruggen A. C. V. (2005). Dimensions of wellbeing and their measurement: the SPF-IL scale. Soc. Indic. Res. 73, 313–353 10.1007/s11205-004-0988-2
    1. Nilsson L. G. (2003). Memory function in normal aging. Acta Neurol. Scand. 107(Suppl. 179), 7–13 10.1034/j.1600-0404.107.s179.5.x
    1. Nouchi R., Taki Y., Takeuchi H., Hashizume H., Akitsuki Y., Shigemune Y., et al. . (2012). Brain training game improves executive functions and processing Speed in the elderly: a randomized controlled trial. PLoS ONE 7:e29676. 10.1371/journal.pone.0029676
    1. Osorio A., Pouthas V., Fay S., Ballesteros S. (2010). Ageing affects brain activity in highly educated older adults: an ERP study using a word-stem priming task. Cortex 46, 522–534. 10.1016/j.cortex.2009.09.003
    1. Owen A. M., Hampshire A., Grahn J. A., Stenton R., Dajani S., Burns A. S., et al. . (2010). Putting brain training to test. Nat. Lett. 465, 775-778. 10.1038/nature09042
    1. Park D. C., Bischof G. N. (2013). The aging mind: neuroplasticity in response to cognitive training. Dialogues Clin. Neurosci. 15, 109–119.
    1. Park D. C., Davidson L., Lautenschlager G., Smith A. D., Smith P., Hedden T. (2002). Models of visuo-spatial and verbal memory across the adult lifespan. Psychol. Aging 17, 299–320. 10.1037/0882-7974.17.2.299
    1. Park D. C., Reuter-Lorenz P. A. (2009). The adaptive brain: ageing and neurocognitive scaffolding. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 60, 173–196. 10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093656
    1. Pascual-Leone A., Amedi A., Fregni F., Merabet L. B. (2005). The plastic human brain cortex. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 28, 377–401 10.1146/annurev.neuro.27.070203.144216
    1. Powers K. L., Brooks P. J., Aldrich N. J., Palladino M., Alfieri L. (2013). Effects of video-game play on information processing: meta-analytic investigation. Psychon. Bull. Rev. 20, 1055–1079. 10.3758/s13423-013-0418-z
    1. Raz N., Lindenberger U., Rodrigue K. M., Kennedy K. M., Head D., Williamson A., et al. . (2005). Regional brain changes in aging healthy adults: general trends, individual differences and modifiers. Cereb. Cortex 15, 1676–1689. 10.1093/cercor/bhi044
    1. Reddick T. S., Shipstead Z., Fried D. E., Hambrick D. Z., Kane M. J., Engle R. W. (2013). No evidence of intelligence improvement after working memory training: a randomized, placebo-controlled study. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 142, 359–379. 10.1037/a0029082
    1. Reitz C., Brayne C., Mayeux R. (2011). Epidemiology of Alzheimer disease. Nat. Rev. Neurol. 7, 137–152. 10.1038/nrneurol.2011.2
    1. Reuter-Lorenz P. A., Park D. C. (2014). How Does it STAC Up? Revisiting the Scaffolding Theory of Aging and Cognition. Neuropsychol. Rev. 24, 355–370. 10.1007/s11065-014-9270-9
    1. Rey A. (1942). L‘examen psychologique dans les cas d‘encéfalopathie traumatique. Arch. Psychol. 112, T.XXVIII.
    1. Rey A. (1999). Test de Copia y de Reproducción de Memoria de una Figura Geométrica Compleja (Manual). Madrid: TEA Ediciones.
    1. Richardson J. T. E., Vecchi T. (2002). A jigsaw-puzzle imagery task for assessing active visuospatial processes in old and young people. Behav. Res. Methods Instrum. Comput. 34, 69–82. 10.3758/BF03195425
    1. Salthouse T. A. (1996). The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition. Psychol. Rev. 103, 403–428. 10.1037/0033-295X.103.3.403
    1. Sebastián M., Ballesteros S. (2012). Effects of normal aging on event-related potentials and oscillatory brain activity during a haptic repetition priming task. Neuroimage 60, 7–20. 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.11.060
    1. Smith G. E., Housen P., Yaffe K., Ruff R., Kennison R. F., Mahncke H. W., et al. . (2009). A cognitive training program based on principles of brain plasticity: results from the improvement in memory with plasticity-based adaptative cognitive training (IMPACT) Study. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 57, 594–603. 10.1111/j.1532-5415.2008.02167.x
    1. Stemberg D. A., Ballard K., Hardy J. L., Katz B., Doraiswamy P. M., Scanlon M. (2013). The largest human cognitive performance dataset reveals insights into the effects of lifestyle factors and aging. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 7:292. 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00292
    1. Stern Y. (2002). What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 8, 448–460. 10.1017/S1355617702813248
    1. Stern Y. (2009). Cognitive reserve. Neuropsychologia 47, 2015–2028. 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.03.004
    1. Stern Y. (2012). Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease. Lancet Neurol. 11, 1006–1012. 10.1016/S1474-4422(12)70191-6
    1. Stern Y., Blumen H. M., Rich L. W., Richards A., Herzberg G., Gopher D. (2011). Space Fortress game training and executive control in older adults: a pilot intervention. Neuropsychol. Dev. Cogn. B Aging Neuropsychol. Cogn. 18, 653–77. 10.1080/13825585.2011.613450
    1. Toril P., Reales J. M., Ballesteros S. (2014). Video game training enhances cognition of older adults? A meta-analytic study. Psychol. Aging 29, 706–716. 10.1037/a0037507
    1. Valenzuela M., Sachdev P. (2009). Can cognitive exercise prevent the onset of dementia? Systematic review of randomized clinical trials with longitudinal follow-up. Am. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 17, 179–187. 10.1097/JGP.0b013e3181953b57
    1. Wechsler D. (1997). Wechsler Memory Scale (WMS-III). San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation: Harcourt Brace.
    1. Wechsler D. (1999). WAIS-III: Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, Administration and Scoring Manual, 3rd Edn. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation: Harcourt Brace.
    1. Wechsler D., Pereña J. (2004). WMS-III: Escala de Memoria de Wechsler-III. Madrid: Tea.
    1. Wiggs C. L., Weisberg J., Martin A. (2006). Repetition priming across the adult lifespan—the long and short of it. Neuropsychol. Dev. Cogn. B Aging Neuropsychol. Cogn. 13, 308–325. 10.1080/138255890968718
    1. Willis S. L., Tennstedt S. L., Marsiske M., Ball K., Elias J., Koepke K. M., et al. . (2006). ACTIVE Study Group. Long-term effects of cognitive training on everyday functional outcomes in older adults. JAMA 296, 2805–2814. 10.1001/jama.296.23.2805
    1. Yesavage J. A., Brink T. L., Rose T. L., Lum O., Huang V., Adey M., et al. . (1983). Development and validation of a geriatric depression screening scale: a preliminary report. J. Psychiatr. Res. 17, 37–49. 10.1016/0022-3956(82)90033-4

Source: PubMed

赞助者和合作者

医疗条件

药物干预

3
订阅