Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease: review of a rare autoimmune disease targeting antigens of melanocytes

Marcelo Mendes Lavezzo, Viviane Mayumi Sakata, Celso Morita, Ever Ernesto Caso Rodriguez, Smairah Frutuoso Abdallah, Felipe T G da Silva, Carlos Eduardo Hirata, Joyce Hisae Yamamoto, Marcelo Mendes Lavezzo, Viviane Mayumi Sakata, Celso Morita, Ever Ernesto Caso Rodriguez, Smairah Frutuoso Abdallah, Felipe T G da Silva, Carlos Eduardo Hirata, Joyce Hisae Yamamoto

Abstract

Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease (VKHD) is a rare granulomatous inflammatory disease that affects pigmented structures, such as eye, inner ear, meninges, skin and hair. This disease is mainly a Th1 lymphocyte mediated aggression to melanocytes after a viral trigger in the presence of HLA-DRB1*0405 allele. The absence of ocular trauma or previous intraocular surgery sets VKHD appart from sympathetic ophthalmia, its main differential diagnosis. The disease has an acute onset of bilateral blurred vision with hyperemia preceded by flu-like symptoms. The acute uveitic stage is characterized by a diffuse choroiditis with serous retinal detachment and optic disc hyperemia and edema. Fluorescein angiography in this phase demonstrates multiple early hyperfluorescent points. After the acute uveitic stage, ocular and integumentary system pigmentary changes may appear. Ocular findings may be accompanied by lymphocytic meningitis, hearing impairment and/or tinnitus in a variable proportion of patients. Prompt diagnosis followed by early, aggressive and long-term treatment with high-dose corticosteroids is most often ensued by good visual outcomes. However, some patients may experience chronic uveal inflammation with functional eye deterioration. The current review discusses the general features of VKHD, including epidemiology, classification into categories, differential diagnosis and current therapeutic approaches.

Keywords: Review; Uveitis; Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease.

Figures

Fig. 1
Fig. 1
Hypothetical scheme of VKHD pathogenesis. Courtesy of Arquivos Brasileiros de Oftalmologia – Damico, F.M., et al., New insights into Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Arq Bras Oftalmol, 2009. 72 [3]: p. 413-20 [39]
Fig. 2
Fig. 2
Acute uveitic stage: a and b: Right and left eye of a patient in the acute stage of Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease, presenting white- yellowish deep round lesions, hyperemia and blurring of the optic disc and exudative retinal detachment; c and d: Early fluorescein angiography, showing pinpoints and optic disc hyperfluorescence; e and f: Increase in pinpoints hyperfluorescence (arrows) and optic disc leakage; g and h: Coalescence of pinpoints hyperfluorescence resulting in pooling of the contrast (arrows) in exudative retinal detachment areas
Fig. 3
Fig. 3
OCT scans in the acute uveitic stage. a and c Fundoscopic aspect with optic disc swelling and hyperemia, besides multiple yellowish deep round lesions and exudative retinal detachment. b OCT scan showing a bullous unique exudative retinal detachment with hyperreflective material within the subretinal fluid (fibrin) and a strand continuous to the ellipsoid zone (arrow); d OCT scan of an exudative retinal detachment, with multiple compartments (asterisk) separated by membranous strutures
Fig. 4
Fig. 4
Right eye of a patient in the chronic stage. a: Fundoscopy with a mild depigmentation; b: OCT scan showing an increased choroidal thickness of 444 μm; c and d: Indocyanine green angiography showing multiple dark dots (arrows) and an uneven background choroidal fluorescence visible at the mid phase of ICGA
Fig. 5
Fig. 5
Poliosis of the lashes eyebrows and scalp hair
Fig. 6
Fig. 6
Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease treatment flowchart under consideration in the Uveitis Service, Hospital das Clínicas, Faculdade de Medicina, São Paulo University, São Paulo, SP, Brazil

References

    1. Moorthy RS, Inomata H, Rao NA. Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome. Surv Ophthalmol. 1995;39(4):265–292. doi: 10.1016/S0039-6257(05)80105-5.
    1. Herbort CP, Mochizuki M. Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease: inquiry into the genesis of a disease name in the historical context of Switzerland and Japan. Int Ophthalmol. 2007;27(2–3):67–79. doi: 10.1007/s10792-007-9083-4.
    1. Marmor MF, Ravin JG. The Artist’s Eyes - Vision and the History of Art. New York: Abrams; 2009. Chapter 34 - Goya’s Strange Malady; pp. 184–187.
    1. Rao NA, Gupta A, Dustin L, Chee SP, Okada AA, Khairallah M, et al. Frequency of distinguishing clinical features in Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Ophthalmology. 2010;117(3):591–599. doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2009.08.030.
    1. Ohguro N, Sonoda KH, Takeuchi M, Matsumura M, Mochizuki M. The 2009 prospective multi-center epidemiologic survey of uveitis in Japan. Jpn J Ophthalmol. 2012;56(5):432–435. doi: 10.1007/s10384-012-0158-z.
    1. Ohno S, Char DH, Kimura SJ, O’Connor GR. Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol. 1977;83(5):735–740. doi: 10.1016/0002-9394(77)90142-8.
    1. Gouveia EB, Yamamoto JH, Abdalla M, Hirata CE, Kubo P, Olivalves E. Causas das uveítes em serviço terciário em São Paulo, Brasil. Arq Bras Oftalmol. 2004;67(1):139–145. doi: 10.1590/S0004-27492004000100025.
    1. Belfort R, Jr, Nishi M, Hayashi S, Abreu MT, Petrilli AM, Plut RC. Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada’s disease in Brazil. Jpn J Ophthalmol. 1988;32:344–347.
    1. Yang P, Zhang Z, Zhou H, Li B, Huang X, Gao Y, et al. Clinical patterns and characteristics of uveitis in a tertiary center for uveitis in China. Curr Eye Res. 2005;30(11):943–948. doi: 10.1080/02713680500263606.
    1. Rubsamen PE, Gass JD. Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome. Clinical course, therapy, and long-term visual outcome. Arch Ophthalmol. 1991;109(5):682–687. doi: 10.1001/archopht.1991.01080050096037.
    1. Martin TD, Rathinam SR, Cunningham ET., Jr Prevalence, clinical characteristics, and causes of vision loss in children with Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease in South India. Retina. 2010;30(7):1113–1121. doi: 10.1097/IAE.0b013e3181c96a87.
    1. Hamade IH, Al Shamsi HN, Al Dhibi H, Chacra CB, Abu El-Asrar AM, Tabbara KF. Uveitis survey in children. Br J Ophthalmol. 2009;93(5):569–572. doi: 10.1136/bjo.2008.148015.
    1. Ikeda N, Hayasaka S, Hayasaka Y. Uveitis and pseudouveitis presenting for the first time in Japanese elderly patients. Ophthalmologica. 2005;219(5):263–266. doi: 10.1159/000086108.
    1. Kiyomoto C, Imaizumi M, Kimoto K, Abe H, Nakano S, Nakatsuka K. Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease in elderly Japanese patients. Int Ophthalmol. 2007;27(2–3):149–153. doi: 10.1007/s10792-007-9067-4.
    1. Bassili SS, Peyman GA, Gebhardt BM, Daun M, Ganiban GJ, Rifai A. Detection of Epstein-Barr virus DNA by polymerase chain reaction in the vitreous from a patient with Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome. Retina. 1996;16(2):160–161. doi: 10.1097/00006982-199616020-00013.
    1. Sugita S, Takase H, Kawaguchi T, Taguchi C, Mochizuki M. Cross-reaction between tyrosinase peptides and cytomegalovirus antigen by T cells from patients with Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Int Ophthalmol. 2007;27(2–3):87–95. doi: 10.1007/s10792-006-9020-y.
    1. Matsuda H. Electron microscopic studies on Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome and sympathetic ophthalmia with special reference to the melanocyte. Nihon Ganka Gakkai Zasshi. 1970;74(9):1107–1112.
    1. Hammer H. Cellular hypersensitivity to uveal pigment confirmed by leucocyte migration tests in sympathetic ophthalmitis and the Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome. Br J Ophthalmol. 1974;58(9):773–776. doi: 10.1136/bjo.58.9.773.
    1. Maezawa N, Yano A. Two distinct cytotoxic T lymphocyte subpopulations in patients with Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease that recognize human melanoma cells. Microbiol Immunol. 1984;28(2):219–231. doi: 10.1111/j.1348-0421.1984.tb00673.x.
    1. Norose K, Yano A, Aosai F, Segawa K. Immunologic analysis of cerebrospinal fluid lymphocytes in Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1990;31(7):1210–1216.
    1. McClellan KA, MacDonald M, Hersey P, Billson FA. Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome--isolation of cloned T cells with specificity for melanocytes and melanoma cells. Aust N Z J Ophthalmol. 1989;17(4):347–352. doi: 10.1111/j.1442-9071.1989.tb00552.x.
    1. Kawakami Y, Robbins PF, Rosenberg SA. Human melanoma antigens recognized by T lymphocytes. Keio J Med. 1996;45(2):100–108. doi: 10.2302/kjm.45.100.
    1. Yamaki K, Gocho K, Hayakawa K, Kondo I, Sakuragi S. Tyrosinase family proteins are antigens specific to Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. J Immunol. 2000;165(12):7323–7329. doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.165.12.7323.
    1. Gocho K, Kondo I, Yamaki K. Identification of autoreactive T cells in Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2001;42(9):2004–2009.
    1. Sugita S, Takase H, Taguchi C, Imai Y, Kamoi K, Kawaguchi T, et al. Ocular infiltrating CD4+ T cells from patients with Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease recognize human melanocyte antigens. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2006;47(6):2547–2554. doi: 10.1167/iovs.05-1547.
    1. Damico FM, Cunha-Neto E, Goldberg AC, Iwai LK, Marin ML, Hammer J, et al. T-cell recognition and cytokine profile induced by melanocyte epitopes in patients with HLA-DRB1*0405-positive and -negative Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada uveitis. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2005;46(7):2465–2471. doi: 10.1167/iovs.04-1273.
    1. Yamaki K, Kondo I, Nakamura H, Miyano M, Konno S, Sakuragi S. Ocular and extraocular inflammation induced by immunization of tyrosinase related protein 1 and 2 in Lewis rats. Exp Eye Res. 2000;71(4):361–369. doi: 10.1006/exer.2000.0893.
    1. Sakamoto T, Murata T, Inomata H. Class II major histocompatibility complex on melanocytes of Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Arch Ophthalmol. 1991;109(9):1270–1274. doi: 10.1001/archopht.1991.01080090096030.
    1. Inomata H, Sakamoto T. Immunohistochemical studies of Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease with sunset sky fundus. Curr Eye Res. 1990;9(Suppl):35–40. doi: 10.3109/02713689008999417.
    1. Davis JL, Mittal KK, Freidlin V, Mellow SR, Optican DC, Palestine AG, et al. HLA associations and ancestry in Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease and sympathetic ophthalmia. Ophthalmology. 1990;97(9):1137–1142. doi: 10.1016/S0161-6420(90)32446-6.
    1. Tagawa Y, Sugiura S, Yakura H, Wakisaka A, Aizawa M. The association between major histocompatibility antigens (HLA) and Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome (author’s transl) Nihon Ganka Gakkai Zasshi. 1976;80(8):486–490.
    1. Shindo Y, Inoko H, Yamamoto T, Ohno S. HLA-DRB1 typing of Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada’s disease by PCR-RFLP and the strong association with DRB1*0405 and DRB1*0410. Br J Ophthalmol. 1994;78(3):223–226. doi: 10.1136/bjo.78.3.223.
    1. Islam SM, Numaga J, Fujino Y, Hirata R, Matsuki K, Maeda H, et al. HLA class II genes in Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1994;35(11):3890–3896.
    1. Zhang XY, Wang XM, Hu TS. Profiling human leukocyte antigens in Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol. 1992;113(5):567–572. doi: 10.1016/S0002-9394(14)74731-2.
    1. Weisz JM, Holland GN, Roer LN, Park MS, Yuge AJ, Moorthy RS, et al. Association between Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome and HLA-DR1 and -DR4 in Hispanic patients living in southern California. Ophthalmology. 1995;102(7):1012–1015. doi: 10.1016/S0161-6420(95)30920-7.
    1. Goldberg AC, Yamamoto JH, Chiarella JM, Marin ML, Sibinelli M, Neufeld R, et al. HLA-DRB1*0405 is the predominant allele in Brazilian patients with Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Hum Immunol. 1998;59(3):183–188. doi: 10.1016/S0198-8859(97)00265-6.
    1. Ng JY, Luk FO, Lai TY, Pang CP. Influence of molecular genetics in Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. J Ophthalmic Inflamm Infect. 2014;4:20. doi: 10.1186/s12348-014-0020-1.
    1. Hou S, Du L, Lei B, Pang CP, Zhang M, Zhuang W, et al. Genome-wide association analysis of Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome identifies two new susceptibility loci at 1p31.2 and 10q21.3. Nat Genet. 2014;46(9):1007–1011. doi: 10.1038/ng.3061.
    1. Rao NA. Mechanisms of inflammatory response in sympathetic ophthalmia and VKH syndrome. Eye (Lond) 1997;11(Pt 2):213–216. doi: 10.1038/eye.1997.54.
    1. Damico FM, Bezerra FT, Silva GC, Gasparin F, Yamamoto JH. New insights into Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Arq Bras Oftalmol. 2009;72(3):413–420. doi: 10.1590/S0004-27492009000300028.
    1. Imai Y, Sugita M, Nakamura S, Toriyama S, Ohno S. Cytokine production and helper T cell subsets in Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada’s disease. Curr Eye Res. 2001;22(4):312–318. doi: 10.1076/ceyr.22.4.312.5510.
    1. Chi W, Yang P, Li B, Wu C, Jin H, Zhu X, et al. IL-23 promotes CD4+ T cells to produce IL-17 in Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2007;119(5):1218–1224. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2007.01.010.
    1. Shu Q, Yang P, Hou S, Li F, Chen Y, Du L, et al. Interleukin-17 gene polymorphism is associated with Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome but not with Behcet’s disease in a Chinese Han population. Hum Immunol. 2010;71(10):988–991. doi: 10.1016/j.humimm.2010.06.020.
    1. Li F, Yang P, Liu X, Wang C, Hou S, Kijlstra A. Upregulation of interleukin 21 and promotion of interleukin 17 production in chronic or recurrent Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Arch Ophthalmol. 2010;128(11):1449–1454. doi: 10.1001/archophthalmol.2010.265.
    1. Wang C, Tian Y, Lei B, Xiao X, Ye Z, Li F, et al. Decreased IL-27 expression in association with an increased Th17 response in Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2012;53(8):4668–4675. doi: 10.1167/iovs.12-9863.
    1. Commodaro AG, Peron JP, Genre J, Arslanian C, Sanches L, Muccioli C, et al. IL-10 and TGF-beta immunoregulatory cytokines rather than natural regulatory T cells are associated with the resolution phase of Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada (VKH) syndrome. Scand J Immunol. 2010;72(1):31–37.
    1. Chen L, Yang P, Zhou H, He H, Ren X, Chi W, et al. Diminished frequency and function of CD4 + CD25high regulatory T cells associated with active uveitis in Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2008;49(8):3475–3482. doi: 10.1167/iovs.08-1793.
    1. Chen W, Lin H, Zhong X, Liu Z, Geng Y, Xie C, et al. Discrepant expression of cytokines in inflammation- and age-related cataract patients. PLoS One. 2014;9(10):e109647. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0109647.
    1. Naidu YM, Pararajasegaram G, Sun Y, et al. Predominant expression of T-cell antigen receptor (TCR) Vα 10 in Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada (VKH) syndrome. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1991;32(suppl):934.
    1. de Smet MD, Yamamoto JH, Mochizuki M, Gery I, Singh VK, Shinohara T, et al. Cellular immune responses of patients with uveitis to retinal antigens and their fragments. Am J Ophthalmol. 1990;110(2):135–142. doi: 10.1016/S0002-9394(14)76981-8.
    1. Chan CC, Palestine AG, Nussenblatt RB, Roberge FG, Benezra D. Anti-retinal auto-antibodies in Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome, Behcet’s disease, and sympathetic ophthalmia. Ophthalmology. 1985;92(8):1025–1028. doi: 10.1016/S0161-6420(85)33911-8.
    1. Shinzato M, Yamamoto JH, Hirata CE, Olivalves E, Bonfa E. Anti-SS-A/Ro reactivity in patients with Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome. Lupus. 2004;13(4):279–280. doi: 10.1191/0961203304lu515xx.
    1. Rao NA. Pathology of Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Int Ophthalmol. 2007;27(2–3):81–85. doi: 10.1007/s10792-006-9029-2.
    1. Inomata H, Rao NA. Depigmented atrophic lesions in sunset glow fundi of Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Am J Ophthalmol. 2001;131(5):607–614. doi: 10.1016/S0002-9394(00)00851-5.
    1. Morohashi M, Hashimoto K, Goodman TF, Jr, Newton DE, Rist T. Ultrastructural studies of vitiligo, Vogt-Koyanagi syndrome, and incontinentia pigmenti achromians. Arch Dermatol. 1977;113(6):755–766. doi: 10.1001/archderm.1977.01640060051004.
    1. Snyder DA, Tessler HH. Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol. 1980;90(1):69–75. doi: 10.1016/S0002-9394(14)75078-0.
    1. Sugiura S. Some observations on uveitis in Japan, with special reference to Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada and Behcet diseases (author’s transl) Nihon Ganka Gakkai Zasshi. 1976;80(11):1285–1326.
    1. Sugiura S. Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada Disease. Jpn J Ophthalmol. 1978;22:9–35.
    1. Read RW, Holland GN, Rao NA, Tabbara KF, Ohno S, Arellanes-Garcia L, et al. Revised diagnostic criteria for Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease: report of an international committee on nomenclature. Am J Ophthalmol. 2001;131(5):647–652. doi: 10.1016/S0002-9394(01)00925-4.
    1. Herbort CP, LeHoang P, Guex-Crosier Y. Schematic interpretation of indocyanine green angiography in posterior uveitis using a standard angiographic protocol. Ophthalmology. 1998;105(3):432–440. doi: 10.1016/S0161-6420(98)93024-X.
    1. Herbort CP, Mantovani A, Bouchenaki N. Indocyanine green angiography in Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease: angiographic signs and utility in patient follow-up. Int Ophthalmol. 2007;27(2–3):173–182. doi: 10.1007/s10792-007-9060-y.
    1. Fardeau C, Tran TH, Gharbi B, Cassoux N, Bodaghi B, LeHoang P. Retinal fluorescein and indocyanine green angiography and optical coherence tomography in successive stages of Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Int Ophthalmol. 2007;27(2–3):163–172. doi: 10.1007/s10792-006-9024-7.
    1. da Silva FT, Damico FM, Marin ML, Goldberg AC, Hirata CE, Takiuti PH, et al. Revised diagnostic criteria for vogt-koyanagi-harada disease: considerations on the different disease categories. Am J Ophthalmol. 2009;147(2):339–345. doi: 10.1016/j.ajo.2008.08.034.
    1. da Silva FT, Hirata CE, Olivalves E, Oyamada MK, Yamamoto JH. Fundus-based and electroretinographic strategies for stratification of late-stage Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease patients. Am J Ophthalmol. 2009;148(6):939–945. doi: 10.1016/j.ajo.2009.06.029.
    1. Al Dousary S. Auditory and vestibular manifestations of Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. J Laryngol Otol. 2011;125(2):138–141. doi: 10.1017/S0022215110001817.
    1. Yang P, Ren Y, Li B, Fang W, Meng Q, Kijlstra A. Clinical characteristics of Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome in Chinese patients. Ophthalmology. 2007;114(3):606–614. doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2006.07.040.
    1. Usui Y, Goto H, Sakai J, Takeuchi M, Usui M, Rao NA. Presumed Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease with unilateral ocular involvement: report of three cases. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2009;247(8):1127–1132. doi: 10.1007/s00417-009-1068-8.
    1. Sakata VM, da Silva FT, Hirata CE, Marin ML, Rodrigues H, Kalil J, et al. High rate of clinical recurrence in patients with Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease treated with early high-dose corticosteroids. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2015;253(5):785–790. doi: 10.1007/s00417-014-2904-z.
    1. Knecht PB, Mantovani A, Herbort CP. Indocyanine green angiography-guided management of Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease: differentiation between choroidal scars and active lesions. Int Ophthalmol. 2013;33(5):571–577. doi: 10.1007/s10792-012-9692-4.
    1. da Silva FT, Hirata CE, Sakata VM, Olivalves E, Preti R, Pimentel SL, et al. Indocyanine green angiography findings in patients with long-standing Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease: a cross-sectional study. BMC Ophthalmol. 2012;12:40. doi: 10.1186/1471-2415-12-40.
    1. Gu S, Liu Y, Song Z, Zi X, Deng H. Acute myelitis in a patient with vogt-koyanagi-harada disease: case report and review of the literature. J Clin Neurol. 2013;9(1):61–64. doi: 10.3988/jcn.2013.9.1.61.
    1. Beniz J, Forster DJ, Lean JS, Smith RE, Rao NA. Variations in clinical features of the Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome. Retina. 1991;11(3):275–280. doi: 10.1097/00006982-199111030-00001.
    1. Barnes L. Vitiligo and the Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome. Dermatol Clin. 1988;6(2):229–239.
    1. Friedman AH, Deutsch-Sokol RH. Sugiura’s sign. Perilimbal vitiligo in the Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome. Ophthalmology. 1981;88(11):1159–1165. doi: 10.1016/S0161-6420(81)34891-X.
    1. Fiore T, Iaccheri B, Androudi S, Papadaki TG, Anzaar F, Brazitikos P, et al. Acute posterior multifocal placoid pigment epitheliopathy: outcome and visual prognosis. Retina. 2009;29(7):994–1001. doi: 10.1097/IAE.0b013e3181a0bd15.
    1. Gill MK, Jampol LM. Variations in the presentation of primary intraocular lymphoma: case reports and a review. Surv Ophthalmol. 2001;45(6):463–471. doi: 10.1016/S0039-6257(01)00217-X.
    1. Gross NE, Yannuzzi LA, Freund KB, Spaide RF, Amato GP, Sigal R. Multiple evanescent white dot syndrome. Arch Ophthalmol. 2006;124(4):493–500. doi: 10.1001/archopht.124.4.493.
    1. Levinson RD, Brezin A, Rothova A, Accorinti M, Holland GN. Research criteria for the diagnosis of birdshot chorioretinopathy: results of an international consensus conference. Am J Ophthalmol. 2006;141(1):185–187. doi: 10.1016/j.ajo.2005.08.025.
    1. McCluskey PJ, Watson PG, Lightman S, Haybittle J, Restori M, Branley M. Posterior scleritis: clinical features, systemic associations, and outcome in a large series of patients. Ophthalmology. 1999;106(12):2380–2386. doi: 10.1016/S0161-6420(99)90543-2.
    1. Vianna RN, Ozdal PC, Filho JP, Ventura MP, Saraiva VS, Deschenes J. Longterm follow-up of patients with multifocal choroiditis and panuveitis. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2004;82(6):748–753. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0420.2004.00343.x.
    1. Nguyen QD, Uy HS, Akpek EK, Harper SL, Zacks DN, Foster CS. Choroidopathy of systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus. 2000;9(4):288–298. doi: 10.1191/096120300680199024.
    1. Elagouz M, Stanescu-Segall D, Jackson TL. Uveal effusion syndrome. Surv Ophthalmol. 2010;55(2):134–145. doi: 10.1016/j.survophthal.2009.05.003.
    1. Rao NA, Marak GE. Sympathetic ophthalmia simulating vogt-Koyanagi-Harada’s disease: a clinico-pathologic study of four cases. Jpn J Ophthalmol. 1983;27(3):506–511.
    1. Gass JD. Acute posterior multifocal placoid pigment epitheliopathy. Arch Ophthalmol. 1968;80(2):177–185. doi: 10.1001/archopht.1968.00980050179005.
    1. Steiner S, Goldstein DA. Imaging in the diagnosis and management of APMPPE. Int Ophthalmol Clin. 2012;52(4):211–219. doi: 10.1097/IIO.0b013e318265d45a.
    1. Lee GE, Lee BW, Rao NA, Fawzi AA. Spectral domain optical coherence tomography and autofluorescence in a case of acute posterior multifocal placoid pigment epitheliopathy mimicking Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease: case report and review of literature. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2011;19(1):42–47. doi: 10.3109/09273948.2010.521610.
    1. Aoyagi R, Hayashi T, Masai A, Mitooka K, Gekka T, Kozaki K, et al. Subfoveal choroidal thickness in multiple evanescent white dot syndrome. Clin. Exp. Optom. 2012;95(2):212–217. doi: 10.1111/j.1444-0938.2011.00668.x.
    1. Vance SK, Khan S, Klancnik JM, Freund KB. Characteristic spectral-domain optical coherence tomography findings of multifocal choroiditis. Retina. 2011;31(4):717–723. doi: 10.1097/IAE.0b013e318203c1ef.
    1. Benson WE. Posterior scleritis. Surv Ophthalmol. 1988;32(5):297–316. doi: 10.1016/0039-6257(88)90093-8.
    1. Carvalho-Recchia CA, Yannuzzi LA, Negrao S, Spaide RF, Freund KB, Rodriguez-Coleman H, et al. Corticosteroids and central serous chorioretinopathy. Ophthalmology. 2002;109(10):1834–1837. doi: 10.1016/S0161-6420(02)01117-X.
    1. Shin WB, Kim MK, Lee CS, Lee SC, Kim H. Comparison of the clinical manifestations between acute Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease and acute bilateral central serous chorioretinopathy. Korean J Ophthalmol. 2015;29(6):389–395. doi: 10.3341/kjo.2015.29.6.389.
    1. Wolfensberger TJ, Tufail A. Systemic disorders associated with detachment of the neurosensory retina and retinal pigment epithelium. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. 2000;11(6):455–461. doi: 10.1097/00055735-200012000-00012.
    1. Aisenbrey S, Luke C, Ayertey HD, Grisanti S, Perniok A, Brunner R. Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome associated with cutaneous malignant melanoma: an 11-year follow-up. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2003;241(12):996–999. doi: 10.1007/s00417-003-0787-5.
    1. Souguir A, Hammami A, Dahmeni W, Jaziri H, Ben Mansour I, Zayene A, et al. Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome and Crohn’s disease: an exceptional association. Gastroenterology report. 2015. [Epub ahead of print]
    1. Federman DG, Kravetz JD, Ruser CB, Judson PH, Kirsner RS. Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome and ulcerative colitis. South Med J. 2004;97(2):169–171. doi: 10.1097/01.SMJ.0000100263.99708.10.
    1. Kaya MK, Turgut B, Demir T, Celiker U, Gurates B. A case of vogt-koyanagi-harada disease associated with polycystic ovary syndrome. J Clin Med Res. 2011;3(2):93–95.
    1. Sakata VM, da Silva FT, Hirata CE, de Carvalho JF, Yamamoto JH. Diagnosis and classification of Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Autoimmun Rev. 2014;13(4–5):550–555. doi: 10.1016/j.autrev.2014.01.023.
    1. Arellanes-Garcia L, Hernandez-Barrios M, Fromow-Guerra J, Cervantes-Fanning P. Fluorescein fundus angiographic findings in Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome. Int Ophthalmol. 2007;27(2–3):155–161. doi: 10.1007/s10792-006-9027-4.
    1. Stanga PE, Lim JI, Hamilton P. Indocyanine green angiography in chorioretinal diseases: indications and interpretation: an evidence-based update. Ophthalmology. 2003;110(1):15–21. doi: 10.1016/S0161-6420(02)01563-4.
    1. Koizumi H, Maruyama K, Kinoshita S. Blue light and near-infrared fundus autofluorescence in acute Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Br J Ophthalmol. 2010;94(11):1499–1505. doi: 10.1136/bjo.2009.164665.
    1. Heussen FM, Vasconcelos-Santos DV, Pappuru RR, Walsh AC, Rao NA, Sadda SR. Ultra-wide-field green-light (532-nm) autofluorescence imaging in chronic Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging. 2011;42(4):272–277. doi: 10.3928/15428877-20110505-01.
    1. Ishihara K, Hangai M, Kita M, Yoshimura N. Acute Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease in enhanced spectral-domain optical coherence tomography. Ophthalmology. 2009;116(9):1799–1807. doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2009.04.002.
    1. Nazari H, Rao NA. Resolution of subretinal fluid with systemic corticosteroid treatment in acute Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Br J Ophthalmol. 2012;96(11):1410–1414. doi: 10.1136/bjophthalmol-2012-301857.
    1. Zhao C, Zhang MF, Dong FT, Wang XQ, Wen X, Dai RP, et al. Spectral domain optical coherence tomography of Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease: novel findings and new insights into the pathogenesis. Chin. Med. Sci. J. 2012;27(1):29–34. doi: 10.1016/S1001-9294(12)60019-4.
    1. Ikewaki J, Kimoto K, Choshi T, Nagata M, Motomura Y, Tamura K, et al. Optical coherence tomographic assessment of dynamic macular changes in patients with Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Int Ophthalmol. 2011;31(1):9–13. doi: 10.1007/s10792-010-9412-x.
    1. Gupta V, Gupta A, Gupta P, Sharma A. Spectral-domain cirrus optical coherence tomography of choroidal striations seen in the acute stage of Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Am J Ophthalmol. 2009;147(1):148–153. doi: 10.1016/j.ajo.2008.07.028.
    1. Fong AH, Li KK, Wong D. Choroidal evaluation using enhanced depth imaging spectral-domain optical coherence tomography in Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Retina. 2011;31(3):502–509. doi: 10.1097/IAE.0b013e3182083beb.
    1. Yamanaka E, Ohguro N, Yamamoto S, Nakagawa Y, Imoto Y, Tano Y. Evaluation of pulse corticosteroid therapy for vogt-koyanagi-harada disease assessed by optical coherence tomography. Am J Ophthalmol. 2002;134(3):454–456. doi: 10.1016/S0002-9394(02)01575-1.
    1. Vasconcelos-Santos DV, Sohn EH, Sadda S, Rao NA. Retinal pigment epithelial changes in chronic Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease: fundus autofluorescence and spectral domain-optical coherence tomography findings. Retina. 2010;30(1):33–41. doi: 10.1097/IAE.0b013e3181c5970d.
    1. Margolis R, Spaide RF. A pilot study of enhanced depth imaging optical coherence tomography of the choroid in normal eyes. Am J Ophthalmol. 2009;147(5):811–815. doi: 10.1016/j.ajo.2008.12.008.
    1. Nakayama M, Keino H, Okada AA, Watanabe T, Taki W, Inoue M, et al. Enhanced depth imaging optical coherence tomography of the choroid in Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Retina. 2012;32(10):2061–2069. doi: 10.1097/IAE.0b013e318256205a.
    1. Maruko I, Iida T, Sugano Y, Oyamada H, Sekiryu T, Fujiwara T, et al. Subfoveal choroidal thickness after treatment of Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Retina. 2011;31(3):510–517. doi: 10.1097/IAE.0b013e3181eef053.
    1. da Silva FT, Sakata VM, Nakashima A, Hirata CE, Olivalves E, Takahashi WY, et al. Enhanced depth imaging optical coherence tomography in long-standing Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Br J Ophthalmol. 2013;97(1):70–74. doi: 10.1136/bjophthalmol-2012-302089.
    1. Hashizume K, Imamura Y, Fujiwara T, Machida S, Ishida M, Kurosaka D. Choroidal thickness in eyes with posterior recurrence of Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease after high-dose steroid therapy. Acta Ophthalmol. 2014;92(6):e490–e491. doi: 10.1111/aos.12384.
    1. Forster DJ, Cano MR, Green RL, Rao NA. Echographic features of the Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome. Arch Ophthalmol. 1990;108(10):1421–1426. doi: 10.1001/archopht.1990.01070120069031.
    1. Gohdo T, Tsukahara S. Ultrasound Biomicroscopy of shallow anterior chamber in Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol. 1996;122(1):112–114. doi: 10.1016/S0002-9394(14)71973-7.
    1. Chee SP, Luu CD, Cheng CL, Lim WK, Jap A. Visual function in Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada patients. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2005;243(8):785–790. doi: 10.1007/s00417-005-1156-3.
    1. Yang P, Fang W, Wang L, Wen F, Wu W, Kijlstra A. Study of macular function by multifocal electroretinography in patients with Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol. 2008;146(5):767–771. doi: 10.1016/j.ajo.2008.05.044.
    1. Read RW, Yu F, Accorinti M, Bodaghi B, Chee SP, Fardeau C, et al. Evaluation of the effect on outcomes of the route of administration of corticosteroids in acute Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Am J Ophthalmol. 2006;142(1):119–124. doi: 10.1016/j.ajo.2006.02.049.
    1. Kawaguchi T, Horie S, Bouchenaki N, Ohno-Matsui K, Mochizuki M, Herbort CP. Suboptimal therapy controls clinically apparent disease but not subclinical progression of Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Int Ophthalmol. 2010;30(1):41–50. doi: 10.1007/s10792-008-9288-1.
    1. Chee SP, Jap A, Bacsal K. Prognostic factors of Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease in Singapore. Am J Ophthalmol. 2009;147(1):154–161. doi: 10.1016/j.ajo.2008.07.044.
    1. Rao NA. Treatment of Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease by corticosteroids and immunosuppressive agents. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2006;14(2):71–72. doi: 10.1080/09273940600674368.
    1. Chee S-P, Jap A. The outcomes of indocyanine green angiography monitored immunotherapy in Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Br J Ophthalmol. 2013;97(2):130–133. doi: 10.1136/bjophthalmol-2012-302538.
    1. Lai TY, Chan RP, Chan CK, Lam DS. Effects of the duration of initial oral corticosteroid treatment on the recurrence of inflammation in Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Eye (Lond) 2009;23(3):543–548. doi: 10.1038/eye.2008.89.
    1. Errera MH, Fardeau C, Cohen D, Navarro A, Gaudric A, Bodaghi B, et al. Effect of the duration of immunomodulatory therapy on the clinical features of recurrent episodes in Vogt--Koyanagi--Harada disease. Acta Ophthalmol. 2011;89(4):e357–e366. doi: 10.1111/j.1755-3768.2010.02055.x.
    1. Jabs DA, Rosenbaum JT, Foster CS, Holland GN, Jaffe GJ, Louie JS, et al. Guidelines for the use of immunosuppressive drugs in patients with ocular inflammatory disorders: recommendations of an expert panel. Am J Ophthalmol. 2000;130(4):492–513. doi: 10.1016/S0002-9394(00)00659-0.
    1. Kempen JH, Gangaputra S, Daniel E, Levy-Clarke GA, Nussenblatt RB, Rosenbaum JT, et al. Long-term risk of malignancy among patients treated with immunosuppressive agents for ocular inflammation: a critical assessment of the evidence. Am J Ophthalmol. 2008;146(6):802–812. doi: 10.1016/j.ajo.2008.04.035.
    1. Paredes I, Ahmed M, Foster CS. Immunomodulatory therapy for Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada patients as first-line therapy. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2006;14(2):87–90. doi: 10.1080/09273940500536766.
    1. Kacmaz RO, Kempen JH, Newcomb C, Daniel E, Gangaputra S, Nussenblatt RB, et al. Cyclosporine for ocular inflammatory diseases. Ophthalmology. 2010;117(3):576–584. doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2009.08.010.
    1. Galor A, Jabs DA, Leder HA, Kedhar SR, Dunn JP, Peters GB, 3rd, et al. Comparison of antimetabolite drugs as corticosteroid-sparing therapy for noninfectious ocular inflammation. Ophthalmology. 2008;115(10):1826–1832. doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2008.04.026.
    1. Kondo Y, Fukuda K, Suzuki K, Nishida T. Chronic noninfectious uveitis associated with Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease treated with low-dose weekly systemic methotrexate. Jpn J Ophthalmol. 2012;56(1):104–106. doi: 10.1007/s10384-011-0092-5.
    1. Abu El-Asrar AM, Hemachandran S, Al-Mezaine HS, Kangave D, Al-Muammar AM. The outcomes of mycophenolate mofetil therapy combined with systemic corticosteroids in acute uveitis associated with Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Acta Ophthalmol. 2012;90(8):e603–e608. doi: 10.1111/j.1755-3768.2012.02498.x.
    1. Urzua CA, Velasquez V, Sabat P, Berger O, Ramirez S, Goecke A, et al. Earlier immunomodulatory treatment is associated with better visual outcomes in a subset of patients with Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Acta Ophthalmol. 2015;93:e475–e480. doi: 10.1111/aos.12648.
    1. Kim SJ, Yu HG. The use of low-dose azathioprine in patients with Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2007;15(5):381–387. doi: 10.1080/09273940701624312.
    1. Wang Y, Gaudio PA. Infliximab therapy for 2 patients with Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2008;16(4):167–171. doi: 10.1080/09273940802204527.
    1. Niccoli L, Nannini C, Cassara E, Gini G, Lenzetti I, Cantini F. Efficacy of infliximab therapy in two patients with refractory Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Br J Ophthalmol. 2009;93(11):1553–1554. doi: 10.1136/bjo.2008.153981.
    1. Dolz-Marco R, Gallego-Pinazo R, Diaz-Llopis M. Rituximab in refractory Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. J Ophthalmic Inflamm Infect. 2011;1(4):177–180. doi: 10.1007/s12348-011-0027-9.
    1. Andrade RE, Muccioli C, Farah ME, Nussenblatt RB, Belfort R., Jr Intravitreal triamcinolone in the treatment of serous retinal detachment in Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol. 2004;137(3):572–574. doi: 10.1016/j.ajo.2003.08.035.
    1. Karacorlu M, Arf Karacorlu S, Ozdemir H. Intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide in Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2006;16(3):481–483.
    1. Park HS, Nam KY, Kim JY. Intravitreal bevacizumab injection for persistent serous retinal detachment associated with Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2011;249(1):133–136. doi: 10.1007/s00417-010-1477-8.
    1. Khalifa Y, Loh AR, Acharya NR. Fluocinolone acetonide intravitreal implants in Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2009;17(6):431–433. doi: 10.3109/09273940903267936.
    1. Tabbara KF, Chavis PS, Freeman WR. Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome in children compared to adults. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 1998;76(6):723–726. doi: 10.1034/j.1600-0420.1998.760619.x.
    1. Soheilian M, Aletaha M, Yazdani S, Dehghan MH, Peyman GA. Management of pediatric Vogt-Koyanagi- Harada (VKH)-associated panuveitis. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2006;14(2):91–98. doi: 10.1080/09273940600557001.
    1. Abu El-Asrar AM, Al-Kharashi AS, Aldibhi H, Al-Fraykh H, Kangave D. Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease in children. Eye (Lond) 2008;22(9):1124–1131. doi: 10.1038/sj.eye.6702859.
    1. Friedman Z, Granat M, Neumann E. The syndrome of Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada and pregnancy. Metab Pediatr Ophthalmol. 1980;4(3):147–149.
    1. Miyata N, Sugita M, Nakamura S, Isobe K, Matoba H, Tsuda K, et al. Treatment of Vogt-Koyanagi- Harada’s disease during pregnancy. Jpn J Ophthalmol. 2001;45(2):177–180. doi: 10.1016/S0021-5155(00)00357-9.
    1. Doi M, Matsubara H, Uji Y. Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome in a pregnant patient treated with high-dose systemic corticosteroids. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2000;78(1):93–96. doi: 10.1034/j.1600-0420.2000.078001093.x.
    1. Tien MC, Teoh SC. Treatment of Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome in pregnancy. Can J Ophthalmol. 2009;44(2):211–212. doi: 10.3129/i09-011.
    1. Onishi SM, Asahi MG, Chou C, Gallemore RP. Topical difluprednate for the treatment of Harada’s disease. Clin Ophthalmol. 2015;9:157–167.
    1. Maya JR, Sadiq MA, Zapata LJ, Hanout M, Sarwar S, Rajagopalan N, et al. Emerging therapies for noninfectious uveitis: what may be coming to the clinics. J Ophthalmol. 2014;2014:310329. doi: 10.1155/2014/310329.
    1. Rutzen AR, Ortega-Larrocea G, Frambach DA, Rao NA. Macular edema in chronic Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome. Retina. 1995;15(6):475–479. doi: 10.1097/00006982-199515060-00003.
    1. Khairallah M, Rao NA, Ben Yahia S, Zaouali S, Attia S. Pseudotumoral retinal pigment epithelium proliferation in a patient with Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Arch Ophthalmol. 2006;124(9):1366–1367. doi: 10.1001/archopht.124.9.1366.
    1. Yang P, Sun M. Band-shaped keratopathy in Chinese patients with Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome. Cornea. 2011;30(12):1336–1340. doi: 10.1097/ICO.0b013e31820f774c.
    1. Nakao K, Mizushima Y, Abematsu N, Goh N, Sakamoto T. Anterior ischemic optic neuropathy associated with Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2009;247(10):1417–1425. doi: 10.1007/s00417-009-1125-3.
    1. Moorthy RS, Rajeev B, Smith RE, Rao NA. Incidence and management of cataracts in Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol. 1994;118(2):197–204. doi: 10.1016/S0002-9394(14)72899-5.
    1. Mehta S, Linton MM, Kempen JH. Outcomes of cataract surgery in patients with uveitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Ophthalmol. 2014;158(4):676–692. doi: 10.1016/j.ajo.2014.06.018.
    1. Quek DT, Jap A, Chee SP. Risk factors for poor visual outcome following cataract surgery in Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Br J Ophthalmol. 2011;95(11):1542–1546. doi: 10.1136/bjo.2010.184796.
    1. Ganesh SK, Padmaja, Babu K, Biswas J. Cataract surgery in patients with Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome. J Cataract Refract Surg. 2004;30(1):95–100. doi: 10.1016/S0886-3350(03)00552-2.
    1. Meacock WR, Spalton DJ, Bender L, Antcliff R, Heatley C, Stanford MR, et al. Steroid prophylaxis in eyes with uveitis undergoing phacoemulsification. Br J Ophthalmol. 2004;88(9):1122–1124. doi: 10.1136/bjo.2003.032482.
    1. Lundvall A, Zetterstrom C. Cataract extraction and intraocular lens implantation in children with uveitis. Br J Ophthalmol. 2000;84(7):791–793. doi: 10.1136/bjo.84.7.791.
    1. Ram J, Gupta A, Kumar S, Kaushik S, Gupta N, Severia S. Phacoemulsification with intraocular lens implantation in patients with uveitis. J Cataract Refract Surg. 2010;36(8):1283–1288. doi: 10.1016/j.jcrs.2010.02.019.
    1. Read RW, Rechodouni A, Butani N, Johnston R, LaBree LD, Smith RE, et al. Complications and prognostic factors in Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Am J Ophthalmol. 2001;131(5):599–606. doi: 10.1016/S0002-9394(01)00937-0.
    1. Takahashi T, Ohtani S, Miyata K, Miyata N, Shirato S, Mochizuki M. A clinical evaluation of uveitis-associated secondary glaucoma. Jpn J Ophthalmol. 2002;46(5):556–562. doi: 10.1016/S0021-5155(02)00549-X.
    1. Iwao K, Inatani M, Seto T, Takihara Y, Ogata-Iwao M, Okinami S, et al. Long-term outcomes and prognostic factors for trabeculectomy with mitomycin C in eyes with uveitic glaucoma: a retrospective cohort study. J Glaucoma. 2014;23(2):88–94. doi: 10.1097/IJG.0b013e3182685167.
    1. Kolomeyer AM, Roy MS, Chu DS. The use of intravitreal ranibizumab for choroidal neovascularization associated with vogt-koyanagi-harada syndrome. Case Rep Med. 2011;2011:747648.
    1. Wu L, Evans T, Saravia M, Schlaen A, Couto C. Intravitreal bevacizumab for choroidal neovascularization secondary to Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome. Jpn J Ophthalmol. 2009;53(1):57–60. doi: 10.1007/s10384-008-0600-4.
    1. Mansour AM, Arevalo JF, Ziemssen F, Mehio-Sibai A, Mackensen F, Adan A, et al. Long-term visual outcomes of intravitreal bevacizumab in inflammatory ocular neovascularization. Am J Ophthalmol. 2009;148(2):310–316. doi: 10.1016/j.ajo.2009.03.023.
    1. Nowilaty SR, Bouhaimed M. Photodynamic therapy for subfoveal choroidal neovascularisation in Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Br J Ophthalmol. 2006;90(8):982–986. doi: 10.1136/bjo.2006.091538.
    1. Soheilian M, Movaseghi M, Ramezani A, Peyman GA. Pilot study of safety and effect of combined intravitreal bevacizumab and methotrexate for neovascular age-related macular degeneration. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2011;21(1):77–82. doi: 10.5301/EJO.2010.5696.
    1. Lertsumitkul S, Whitcup SM, Nussenblatt RB, Chan CC. Subretinal fibrosis and choroidal neovascularization in Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 1999;237(12):1039–1045. doi: 10.1007/s004170050342.
    1. Lertsumitkul S, Whitcup SM, Chan CC, Nussenblatt RB. Subretinal fibrosis in Vogt-Koyanagi Harada syndrome. Ophthalmology. 2001;108(8):1371. doi: 10.1016/S0161-6420(01)00665-0.
    1. Kuo IC, Rechdouni A, Rao NA, Johnston RH, Margolis TP, Cunningham ET., Jr Subretinal fibrosis in patients with Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Ophthalmology. 2000;107(9):1721–1728. doi: 10.1016/S0161-6420(00)00244-X.
    1. Ozdal P, Ozdamar Y, Yazici A, Teke MY, Ozturk F. Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease: clinical and demographic characteristics of patients in a specialized eye hospital in Turkey. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2014;22(4):277–286. doi: 10.3109/09273948.2013.856448.
    1. Bacsal K, Wen DSH, Chee S-P. Concomitant choroidal inflammation during anterior segment recurrence in Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Am J Ophthalmol. 2008;145(3):480–486. doi: 10.1016/j.ajo.2007.10.012.
    1. Keino H, Goto H, Usui M. Sunset glow fundus in Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease with or without chronic ocular inflammation. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2002;240(10):878–882. doi: 10.1007/s00417-002-0538-z.
    1. Ohno S, Minakawa R, Matsuda H. Clinical studies of Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada’s disease. Jpn J Ophthalmol. 1988;32(3):334–343.
    1. Al-Kharashi AS, Aldibhi H, Al-Fraykh H, Kangave D, Abu El-Asrar AM. Prognostic factors in Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Int Ophthalmol. 2007;27(2–3):201–210. doi: 10.1007/s10792-007-9062-9.
    1. Jap A, Luu CD, Yeo I, Chee SP. Correlation between peripapillary atrophy and corticosteroid therapy in patients with Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Eye (Lond) 2008;22(2):240–245. doi: 10.1038/sj.eye.6702591.
    1. Islam SM, Numaga J, Matsuki K, Fujino Y, Maeda H, Masuda K. Influence of HLA-DRB1 gene variation on the clinical course of Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1994;35(2):752–756.
    1. Sonoda S, Nakao K, Ohba N. Extensive chorioretinal atrophy in Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Jpn J Ophthalmol. 1999;43(2):113–119. doi: 10.1016/S0021-5155(98)00066-5.
    1. Chee SP, Jap A, Cheung CM. The prognostic value of angiography in Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Am J Ophthalmol. 2010;150(6):888–893. doi: 10.1016/j.ajo.2010.06.029.
    1. Horie Y, Kitaichi N, Takemoto Y, Namba K, Yoshida K, Hirose S, et al. Polymorphism of IFNgamma gene and Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Mol Vis. 2007;13:2334–2338.
    1. Forster DJ, Rao NA, Hill RA, Nguyen QH, Baerveldt G. Incidence and management of glaucoma in Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome. Ophthalmology. 1993;100(5):613–618. doi: 10.1016/S0161-6420(93)31604-0.

Source: PubMed

赞助者和合作者

医疗条件

药物干预

3
订阅