Demystifying cognitive flexibility: Implications for clinical and developmental neuroscience

Abstract

Cognitive flexibility, the readiness with which one can selectively switch between mental processes to generate appropriate behavioral responses, develops in a protracted manner and is compromised in several prevalent neurodevelopmental disorders. It is unclear whether cognitive flexibility arises from neural substrates distinct from the executive control network (ECN) or from the interplay of nodes within this and other networks. Here we review neuroimaging studies of cognitive flexibility, focusing on set shifting and task switching. We propose that more consistent operationalization and study of cognitive flexibility is required in clinical and developmental neuroscience. We suggest that an important avenue for future research is the characterization of the relationship between neural flexibility and cognitive flexibility in typical and atypical development.

Keywords: attention; autism; brain network; dynamic functional connectivity; executive function; inhibition.

Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Figures

Figure 1. Processes contributing to cognitive flexibility

A) Several cognitive processes work coherently to implement cognitive flexibility. The process of switching has been examined the least because of the difficulty in isolating it from the other processes involved in cognitive flexibility. B) The critical nodes involved in cognitive flexibility (red) in the context of surrounding nodes comprising the executive control network (blue) which work to support component processes such as attention and working memory. The connectivity patterns among nodes may determine which executive function is implemented. The proposed function of each node is listed in the adjacent table. Figure created using BrainNet Viewer (https://www.nitrc.org/projects/bnv/). dACC: dorsal anterior cingulate cortex [24]; dlPFC: dorsolateral prefrontal cortex [27]; vlPFC: ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (Neurosynth.org ‘executive function’ query); dAI: dorsal anterior insula [16]; IFJ: inferior frontal junction (Neurosynth.org ‘executive function’ query); SPL: superior parietal lobule [27].

Figure 2. Cognitive flexibility tasks adapted for fMRI

Various task paradigms designed to elicit cognitive flexibility in adults, children, or both cohorts. A) The adult task is reprinted from Armbruster et al., 2012, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience with permission from MIT Press. The task consists of three conditions: the ongoing task, a distractor requiring inhibition, and a task switch. To complete the task, the participant must use the brighter digit if two digits appear. The location of the brighter digit determines whether the condition is the distractor or the task switch. B) This task is reprinted with permission from Yerys et al., 2015. The task consists of stay and switch conditions. Children must respond with their right or left hand based on the spatial mapping of the stimuli on the instruction cue. C) The developmental task is reprinted with permission from Wendelken et al., 2012. Participants must respond with either their right or left hand to indicate the color or direction of the Nemo fish, dependent on the instruction cue. Response-stimuli mapping remains constant throughout the task.

Figure 3. Developmental trajectories of cognitive flexibility and component executive functions

Hypothesized developmental trajectories of attentional control, information processing, cognitive flexibility, and goal setting relative to mature adult levels of cognitive development. Adapted from Anderson, 2002, Child Neuropsychology with permission from Taylor & Francis.