The deadly coronaviruses: The 2003 SARS pandemic and the 2020 novel coronavirus epidemic in China

Yongshi Yang, Fujun Peng, Runsheng Wang, Ming Yange, Kai Guan, Taijiao Jiang, Guogang Xu, Jinlyu Sun, Christopher Chang, Yongshi Yang, Fujun Peng, Runsheng Wang, Ming Yange, Kai Guan, Taijiao Jiang, Guogang Xu, Jinlyu Sun, Christopher Chang

Abstract

The 2019-nCoV is officially called SARS-CoV-2 and the disease is named COVID-19. This viral epidemic in China has led to the deaths of over 1800 people, mostly elderly or those with an underlying chronic disease or immunosuppressed state. This is the third serious Coronavirus outbreak in less than 20 years, following SARS in 2002-2003 and MERS in 2012. While human strains of Coronavirus are associated with about 15% of cases of the common cold, the SARS-CoV-2 may present with varying degrees of severity, from flu-like symptoms to death. It is currently believed that this deadly Coronavirus strain originated from wild animals at the Huanan market in Wuhan, a city in Hubei province. Bats, snakes and pangolins have been cited as potential carriers based on the sequence homology of CoV isolated from these animals and the viral nucleic acids of the virus isolated from SARS-CoV-2 infected patients. Extreme quarantine measures, including sealing off large cities, closing borders and confining people to their homes, were instituted in January 2020 to prevent spread of the virus, but by that time much of the damage had been done, as human-human transmission became evident. While these quarantine measures are necessary and have prevented a historical disaster along the lines of the Spanish flu, earlier recognition and earlier implementation of quarantine measures may have been even more effective. Lessons learned from SARS resulted in faster determination of the nucleic acid sequence and a more robust quarantine strategy. However, it is clear that finding an effective antiviral and developing a vaccine are still significant challenges. The costs of the epidemic are not limited to medical aspects, as the virus has led to significant sociological, psychological and economic effects globally. Unfortunately, emergence of SARS-CoV-2 has led to numerous reports of Asians being subjected to racist behavior and hate crimes across the world.

Keywords: Bats; Coronavirus; Epidemic; Epidemiology; Flu; Human to human transmission; Pandemic; Pneumonia; Pyroptosis; SARS-CoV; SARS-CoV-2.

Conflict of interest statement

Declaration of competing interest The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Figures

Fig. 1
Fig. 1
The origin and inter-host timeline of SARS-CoV-2. All the information is derived from published data. Journal name: (a) Emerging Microbes & Infections, (b) bioRvix, (c) J Med Virol, (d) The Lancet, (e) the New England Journal of Medicine, (f) J Virol, (g) Chin Med J (Engl), (h) https://www.scau.edu.cn/2020/0207/c1300a219015/page.htm. Bat-ZC21: Bat-SL-CoVZC21, GenBank Accession MG772934; Bat-ZC45: Bat-SL-CoVZC45, GenBank Accession MG772933; Bat-RaTG13: yun-nan-Bat-CoV-RaTG13, GISAID accession EPI_ISL_402,131.
Fig. 2
Fig. 2
Confirmed cases of SARS-CoV-2, February 17, 2020. (Data from the government website of China's National Health Commission).
Fig. 3
Fig. 3
Numbers of suspected, confirmed and severe cases of SARS-CoV-2 in China and Hubei province, February 17, 2020. (Data from the government website of China's National Health Commission. Since February 12, 2020, Hubei Province has included the number of clinical diagnosis cases into the number of confirmed cases).
Fig. 4
Fig. 4
Numbers of deaths and recovered cases of SARS-CoV-2 in China and Hubei, February 17, 2020. (Data from the government website of China's National Health Commission).
Fig. 5
Fig. 5
Countries, territories or areas with reported confirmed cases of SARS-CoV-2, February 17, 2020. (Data from the WHO Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) Situation Report-28).
Fig. 6
Fig. 6
A hypothesis of the relationship between SARS-CoV-2 and cell pyroptosis. The COVID-19 may be linked to cell pyroptosis, especially in lymphocytes through the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome. Morphological changes in lymphocytes and macrophages, nucleic acid and protein levels in classical and non-classical cells, detection of NLRP3 and GSDMD, and the role of inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-18 requires further research.
Fig. 7
Fig. 7
Schematic diagram of the SARS-CoV-2 genome [95]. The genomic structure of SARS-CoV-2 is 5′-UTR-orf1a-orf1ab-S (Spike)–E (Envelope)-M (Membrane)-N (Nucleocapsid)-3′UTRpoly (A) tail. Accessory genes are interspersed within the structural genes at the 3′ end of genome. The pp1a protein encoded by the orf1a gene and the pp1ab protein encoded by the orf1ab gene contains 10 nsps (nsp1-nsp10). The pp1ab protein also includes nsp12-nsp16.
Fig. 8
Fig. 8
The treatment and management of COVID-19 pneumonia. ICU: intensive care unit; ECMO: extracorporeal membrane oxygenation.
Fig. 9
Fig. 9
Keys to the control of future hCoV epidemics. Lessons learned from both the SARS and SARS-CoV-2 epidemics.
Fig. 10
Fig. 10
Life in China in Beijing and Hubei during quarantine measures. Quarantine measures have led to empty streets and shopping centers.

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