The Stochastic Entanglement and Phantom Motor Execution Hypotheses: A Theoretical Framework for the Origin and Treatment of Phantom Limb Pain

Max Ortiz-Catalan, Max Ortiz-Catalan

Abstract

Phantom limb pain (PLP) is a debilitating condition common after amputation that can considerably hinder patients' quality of life. Several treatments have reported promising results in alleviating PLP. However, clinical evaluations are usually performed in small cohorts and rigorous clinical trials are scarce. In addition, the underlying mechanisms by which novel interventions alleviate PLP are often unclear, potentially because the condition itself is poorly understood. This article presents a theoretical framework of PLP that can be used as groundwork for hypotheses of novel treatments. Current hypotheses on the origins of PLP are discussed in relation to available clinical findings. Stochastic entanglement of the pain neurosignature, or connectome, with impaired sensorimotor circuitry is proposed as an alternative hypothesis for the genesis of PLP, and the implications and predictions this hypothesis entails are examined. In addition, I present a hypothesis for the working mechanism of Phantom Motor Execution (PME) as a treatment of PLP, along with its relation to the aforementioned stochastic entanglement hypothesis, which deals with PLP's incipience. PME aims to reactivate the original central and peripheral circuitry involved in motor control of the missing limb, along with increasing dexterity of stump muscles. The PME hypothesis entails that training of phantom movements induces gradual neural changes similar to those of perfecting a motor skill, and these purposefully induced neural changes disentangle pain processing circuitry by competitive plasticity. This is a testable hypothesis that can be examined by brain imaging and behavioral studies on subjects undergoing PME treatment. The proposed stochastic entanglement hypothesis of PLP can be generalized to neuropathic pain due to sensorimotor impairment, and can be used to design suitable therapeutic treatments.

Keywords: Phantom Motor Execution; myoelectric pattern recognition; neuropathic pain; phantom limb pain; stochastic entanglement; virtual reality.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Hypotheses on the genesis of phantom limb pain. Simplified schematic of motor (“M”) and somatosensory (“SMS”) signals in a healthy able-bodied, and a person post-amputation. The red arrow resulting in pain perception represents the entire pain neurosignature along with nociceptive fibers where relevant (A–F). For instance, in a healthy subject, the red signal represents nociceptive afferents firing when stimulated (“↯”), as well the neurosignature that results in pain perception (A). The hypotheses of PLP are illustrated in function of changes in efferent and afferent pathways (A–F), as well as their processing circuitry, such as sensorimotor cortical representations (G–F).
Figure 2
Figure 2
Phantom motor execution (PME) using myoelectric pattern recognition (MPR), virtual and augmented reality (VR/AG), and serious gaming (SG). A conventional treatment session of PME consists of identifying viable muscles at the stump, preferably as distally as possible, and placing skin surface electrodes on these muscles (A). Targeted placement of electrodes is recommended but not necessary. In addition, a fiduciary marker is placed in sight of the webcam (A). The subject is then instructed to follow the movements of a virtual limb, executing them as naturally as possible, while myoelectric activity is recorded. Algorithms used the collected information to train decoders to infer future intention of movement. Once the system has been trained, the subject can practice the execution of phantom limb movements in augmented (B) and virtual reality (C, D) environments with anthropomorphic (B, C) and non-anthropomorphic (D) visual feedback. Subjects provided written informed consent for the publication of these images.
Figure 3
Figure 3
Infrared thermography before and after a PME treatment session. Images by a thermographic camera of the stump of a transhumeral amputee, before (left) and after (right) a session of Phantom Motor Execution (PME) using Myoelectric Pattern Recognition (PMR), Virtual, and Augmented Reality (VR/AR), and Serious Gaming (SG).
Figure 4
Figure 4
Treatments for PLP based on motor control. Comparison between plasticity-based treatments using motor imagery or execution of phantom limb movements. Mirror therapy and virtual mirror therapy fundamentally differ only in the source of visual feedback (analog or digital). Virtual mirror therapy illustrates the cases where a functional contralateral limb is the source of control for the virtual limb, as in mirror therapy. Phantom motor execution is illustrated as used with myoelectric pattern recognition and augmented reality. Virtual and augmented reality, as well as serious gaming, can be implemented in both virtual mirror therapy and phantom motor execution.

References

    1. Pezzin LI, Dillingham TR, MacKenzie EJ. Rehabilitation and the long-term outcomes of persons with trauma-related amputations. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. (2000) 81:292–300. 10.1016/S0003-9993(00)90074-1
    1. Clark RL, Bowling FL, Jepson F, Rajbhandari S. Phantom limb pain after amputation in diabetic patients does not differ from that after amputation in nondiabetic patients. Pain (2013) 154:729–32. 10.1016/j.pain.2013.01.009
    1. Richardson C, Crawford K, Milnes K, Bouch E, Kulkarni J. A clinical evaluation of postamputation phenomena including phantom limb pain after lower limb amputation in dysvascular patients. Pain Manag Nurs. (2015) 16:561–9. 10.1016/j.pmn.2014.10.006
    1. Dolezal J, Vernick S, Khan N, Lutz D, Tyndall C. Factors associated with use and nonuse of an AK prosthesis in a rural, southern, geriatric population. Int J Rehabil Heal. (1998) 4:245–251.
    1. Arena JG, Sherman Ra, Bruno GM, Smith JD. The relationship between situational stress and phantom limb pain: cross-lagged correlational data from six month pain logs. J Psychosom Res. (1990) 34:71–7. 10.1016/0022-3999(90)90009-S
    1. Kern U, Busch V, Rockland M, Kohl M, Birklein F. Prävalenz und risikofaktoren von phantomschmerzen und phantomwahrnehmungen in deutschland. Der Schmerz. (2009) 23:479–88. 10.1007/s00482-009-0786-5
    1. Sivertsen B, Lallukka T, Petrie KJ, Steingrímsdóttir ÓA, Stubhaug A, Nielsen CS. Sleep and pain sensitivity in adults. Pain (2015) 156:1433–9. 10.1097/j.pain.0000000000000131
    1. Sherman RA. Stump and phantom limb pain. Neurol Clin. (1989) 7:249–64.
    1. Ruddere L, De Goubert L, Stevens M, Amanda AC, Crombez G. Discounting pain in the absence of medical evidence is explained by negative evaluation of the patient. Pain (2013) 154:669–76. 10.1016/j.pain.2012.12.018
    1. Cervero F. Understanding Pain: Exploring the Perception of Pain. Cambridge: MIT Press; (2012).
    1. Ortiz-Catalan M, Guð*mundsdóttir RA, Kristoffersen MB, Zepeda-Echavarria A, Caine-Winterberger K, Kulbacka-Ortiz K, et al. . Phantom motor execution facilitated by machine learning and augmented reality as treatment for phantom limb pain: a single group, clinical trial in patients with chronic intractable phantom limb pain. Lancet (2016) 388:2885–94. 10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31598-7
    1. Chiu IM, Heesters BA, Ghasemlou N, Von Hehn CA, Zhao F, Tran J, et al. . Bacteria activate sensory neurons that modulate pain and inflammation. Nature (2013) 501:52–7. 10.1038/nature12479
    1. Wilson PR, Person JR, Su DW, Wang JK. Herpes zoster reactivation of phantom limb pain. Mayo Clin Proc. (1978) 53:336–8.
    1. Weinstein SM. Phantom limb pain and related disorders. Neurol Clin. (1998) 16:919–35. 10.1016/S0733-8619(05)70105-5
    1. Griffin SC, Tsao JW. A mechanism-based classification of phantom limb pain. Pain (2014) 155:2236–42. 10.1016/j.pain.2014.05.016
    1. Souza JM, Cheesborough JE, Ko JH, Cho MS, Kuiken TA, Dumanian GA. Targeted muscle reinnervation: a novel approach to postamputation neuroma pain. Clin Orthop Relat Res. (2014) 472:2984–90. 10.1007/s11999-014-3528-7
    1. Woo SL, Kung TA, Brown DL, Leonard JA, Kelly BM, Cederna PS. Regenerative peripheral nerve interfaces for the treatment of postamputation neuroma pain. Plast Reconstr Surg. (2016) 4:e1038. 10.1097/GOX.0000000000001038
    1. Moayedi M, Davis KD. Theories of pain: from specificity to gate control. J Neurophysiol. (2013) 109:5–12. 10.1152/jn.00457.2012
    1. Melzack R. Pain and the neuromatrix in the brain. J Dent Educ. (2001) 65:1378–1382.
    1. Kucyi A, Davis KD. The dynamic pain connectome. Trends Neurosci. (2015) 38:86–95. 10.1016/j.tins.2014.11.006
    1. Vaso A, Adahan H, Gjika A, Zahaj S, Zhurda T, Vyshka G, et al. . Peripheral nervous system origin of phantom limb pain. Pain (2014) 155:1384–91. 10.1016/j.pain.2014.04.018
    1. Pasluosta C, Kiele P, Stieglitz T. Paradigms for restoration of somatosensory feedback via stimulation of the peripheral nervous system. J Clin Neurophysiol. (2018) 129:851–62. 10.1016/j.clinph.2017.12.027
    1. Sherman RA, Sherman CJ, Gall NG. A survey of current phantom limb pain treatment in the United States. Pain (1980) 8:85–99. 10.1016/0304-3959(80)90092-5
    1. Jensen TS, Krebs B, Nielsen J, Rasmussen P. Phantom limb, phantom pain and stump pain in amputees during the first 6 months following limb amputation. Pain (1983) 17:243–56. 10.1016/0304-3959(83)90097-0
    1. Dijkstra PU, Geertzen JHB, Stewart R, van der Schans CP. Phantom pain and risk factors: a multivariate analysis. J Pain Symptom Manag. (2002) 24:578–85. 10.1016/S0885-3924(02)00538-9
    1. Nikolajsen L, Jensen TS. Phantom limb pain. Br J Anaesth. (2001) 87:107–16. 10.1093/bja/87.1.107
    1. Nikolajsen L, Jensen TS. Phantom limb pain. Curr Rev Pain (2000) 4:166–70.
    1. Harris AJ. Cortical Origin of Pathological Pain. Lancet (1999) 354:1464–6. 10.1016/S0140-6736(99)05003-5
    1. Flor H, Elbert T, Knecht S, Wienbruch C, Pantev C, Birbaumer N, et al. . Phantom-limb pain as a perceptual correlate of cortical reorganization following arm amputation. Nature (1995) 375:482–4. 10.1038/375482a0
    1. Knecht S, Henningsen H, Höhling C, Elbert T, Flor H, Pantev C, Taub E. Plasticity of plasticity? Changes in the pattern of perceptual correlates of reorganization after amputation. Brain (1998) 121:717–24. 10.1093/brain/121.4.717
    1. Lotze M, Grodd W, Birbaumer N, Erb M, Huse E, Flor H. Does use of a myoelectric prosthesis prevent cortical reorganization and phantom limb pain? Nat Neurosci. (1999) 2:501–2. 10.1038/9145
    1. Grüsser SM, Winter C, Mühlnickel W, Denke C, Karl A, Villringer K, et al. . The relationship of perceptual phenomena and cortical reorganization in upper extremity amputees. Neuroscience (2001) 102:263–72. 10.1016/S0306-4522(00)00491-7
    1. Birbaumer N, Lutzenberger W, Montoya P, Larbig W, Unertl K, Töpfner S, et al. . Effects of regional anesthesia on phantom limb pain are mirrored in changes in cortical reorganization. J Neurosci. (1997) 17:5503–8.
    1. Maihöfner C, Handwerker HO, Neundorfer B, Birklein F. Patterns of cortical reorganization in complex regional pain syndrome. Neurology (2003) 61:1707–15. 10.1212/01.WNL.0000098939.02752.8E
    1. Maeda Y, Kettner N, Holden J, Lee J, Kim J, Cina S, et al. . Functional deficits in carpal tunnel syndrome reflect reorganization of primary somatosensory cortex. Brain (2014) 137(Pt 6):1741–52. 10.1093/brain/awu096
    1. Foell J, Bekrater-Bodmann R, Diers M, Flor H. Mirror therapy for phantom limb pain: brain changes and the role of body representation. Eur J Pain (2014) 18:729–39. 10.1002/j.1532-2149.2013.00433.x
    1. Flor H, Denke C, Schaefer M, Grüsser S. Effect of sensory discrimination training on cortical reorganisation and phantom limb pain. Lancet (2001) 357:1763–4. 10.1016/S0140-6736(00)04890-X
    1. Pleger B, Tegenthoff M, Ragert P, Förster A-F, Dinse HR, Schwenkreis P, et al. Sensorimotor returning in complex regional pain syndrome parallels pain reduction. Ann Neurol. (2005) 57:425–9. 10.1002/ana.20394
    1. Jutzeler CR, Curt A, Kramer JLK. Relationship between chronic pain and brain reorganization after deafferentation: a systematic review of functional MRI findings. NeuroImage Clin. (2015) 9:599–606. 10.1016/j.nicl.2015.09.018
    1. Makin TR, Scholz J, Filippini N, Henderson Slater D, Tracey I, Johansen-Berg H. Phantom pain is associated with preserved structure and function in the former hand area. Nat Commun. (2013) 4:1570. 10.1038/ncomms2571
    1. Makin TR, Scholz J, Henderson Slater D, Johansen-Berg H, Tracey I. Reassessing cortical reorganization in the primary sensorimotor cortex following arm amputation. Brain (2015) 138:2140–6. 10.1093/brain/awv161
    1. Raffin E, Richard N, Giraux P, Reilly KT. Primary motor cortex changes after amputation correlate with phantom limb pain and the ability to move the phantom limb. Neuroimage (2016) 130:134–44. 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.01.063
    1. Franz Ea, Ramachandran VS. Bimanual coupling in amputees with phantom limbs. Nat Neurosci. (1998) 1:443–4. 10.1038/2161
    1. Osumi M, Sumitani M, Wake N, Sano Y, Ichinose A, Kumagaya SI, et al. . Structured movement representations of a phantom limb associated with phantom limb pain. Neurosci Lett. (2015) 605:7–11. 10.1016/j.neulet.2015.08.009
    1. SIMMEL ML. Phantoms in patients with leprosy and in elderly digital amputees. Am J Psychol. (1956) 69:529–545.
    1. Price DB. Phantom limb phenomenon in patients with leprosy. J Nerv Ment Dis. (1976) 163:108–16. 10.1097/00005053-197608000-00005
    1. Zamany P, Modirian E, Soroush M, Masoumi M, Hoseeini M. Phantom limb sensation (PLS) and phantom limb pain (PLP) among young landmine amputees. Iran J Child Neurol. (2016) 10:42–47.
    1. Melzack R, Israel R, Lacroix R, Schultz G. Phantom limbs in people with congenital limb deficiency or amputation in early childhood. Brain (1997) 120:1603–20.
    1. Goldberger AL. Non-linear dynamics for clinicians: chaos theory, fractals, and complexity at the bedside. Lancet (1996) 347:1312–4.
    1. Deco G, Rolls ET, Romo R. Stochastic dynamics as a principle of brain function. Prog Neurobiol. (2009) 88:1–16. 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2009.01.006
    1. Villemure C, Bushnell MC. Cognitive modulation of pain: How do attention and emotion influence pain processing? Pain (2002) 95:195–9. 10.1016/S0304-3959(02)00007-6
    1. LaBar KS, Cabeza R. Cognitive neuroscience of emotional memory. Nat Rev Neurosci. (2006) 7:54–64. 10.1038/nrn1825
    1. Pantev C, Oostenveld R, Engelien A, Ross B, Roberts LE, Hoke M. Increased auditory cortical representation in musicians. Nature (1998) 392:811–4. 10.1038/33918
    1. Elbert T, Pantev C, Wienbruch C, Rockstroh B, Taub E. Increased cortical representation of the fingers of the left hand in string players. Science (1995) 270:305–7. 10.1126/science.270.5234.305
    1. Huse E, Preissl H, Larbig W, Birbaumer N. Phantom limb pain. Lancet (2001) 358:1015. 10.1016/S0140-6736(01)06144-X
    1. Matyas F, Sreenivasan V, Marbach F, Wacongne C, Barsy B, Mateo C, et al. . Motor control by sensory cortex. Science (2010) 330:1240–3. 10.1126/science.1195797
    1. Ramachandra V, Rogers-Ramachandra D. Synaesthesia in phantom limbs induced with mirrors. Proc R Soc Lond B (1996) 263:377–86.
    1. Moseley LG, Gallace A, Spence C. Is mirror therapy all it is cracked up to be? Current evidence and future directions. Pain (2008) 138:7–10. 10.1016/j.pain.2008.06.026
    1. Shukla GD, Sahu SC, Tripathi RP, Gupta DK. Phantom limb: a phenomenological study. Br J Psychiatry (1982) 141:54–58. 10.1192/bjp.141.1.54
    1. Preißler S, Thielemann D, Dietrich C, Hofmann GO, Miltner WHR, Weiss T. Preliminary evidence for training-induced changes of morphology and phantom limb pain. Front Hum Neurosci. (2017) 11:319. 10.3389/fnhum.2017.00319
    1. Preißler S, Feiler J, Dietrich C, Hofmann GO, Miltner WHR, Weiss T. Gray matter changes following limb amputation with high and low intensities of phantom limb pain. Cereb Cortex (2013) 23:1038–48. 10.1093/cercor/bhs063
    1. MacIver K, Lloyd DM, Kelly S, Roberts N, Nurmikko T. Phantom limb pain, cortical reorganization and the therapeutic effect of mental imagery. Brain (2008) 131:2181–91. 10.1093/brain/awn124
    1. Flor H, Nikolajsen L, Staehelin Jensen T. Phantom limb pain: a case of maladaptive CNS plasticity? Nat Rev Neurosci. (2006) 7:873–81. 10.1038/nrn1991
    1. Diers M, Christmann C, Koeppe C, Ruf M, Flor H. Mirrored, imagined and executed movements differentially activate sensorimotor cortex in amputees with and without phantom limb pain. Pain (2010) 149:296–304. 10.1016/j.pain.2010.02.020
    1. Batsford S, Ryan C, Martin D. Non-pharmacological conservative therapy for phantom limb pain: a systematic review of randomised controlled trials. Physiother Theory Pract. (2017) 33:173–83. 10.1080/09593985.2017.1288283
    1. Turner JA, Deyo RA, Loeser JD, Korff M, Fordyce WE. The importance of placebo effects in pain treatment and research. JAMA (1994) 71:1609–14.
    1. Flor H. Phantom-limb pain: characteristics, causes, and treatment. Lancet Neurol. (2002) 1:182–9.
    1. Nyström B, Hagbarth KE. Microelectrode recordings from transected nerves in amputees with phantom limb pain. Neurosci Lett. (1981) 27:211–6.
    1. Wu CL, Tella P, Staats PS, Vaslav R, Kazim DA, Wesselmann U, et al. . Analgesic effects of intravenous lidocaine and morphine on postamputation pain. Anesthesiology (2002) 96:841–8. 10.1097/00000542-200204000-00010
    1. Finnerup NB, Attal N, Haroutounian S, McNicol E, Baron R, Dworkin RH, et al. . Pharmacotherapy for neuropathic pain in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Neurol. (2015) 14:162–73. 10.1016/S1474-4422(14)70251-0
    1. White JC, Sweet WH. Pain and the Neurosurgeon: a 40-Year Experience. Springfield: Charles C Thomas; (1970).
    1. Sullivan MD, Ballantyne JC. Must we reduce pain intensity to treat chronic pain? Pain (2016) 157:65–9. 10.1097/j.pain.0000000000000336
    1. Ives GC, Kung TA, Nghiem BT, Ursu DC, Brown DL, Cederna PS, et al. . Current state of the surgical treatment of terminal neuromas. Neurosurgery (2017) 83:354–64. 10.1093/neuros/nyx500
    1. Kuiken T, Feuser A, Barlow A. Targeted Muscle Reinnervation. Taylor: Francis; (2013). 10.1201/b15079
    1. Ortiz-Catalan M, Håkansson B, Brånemark R. An osseointegrated human-machine gateway for long-term sensory feedback and motor control of artificial limbs. Sci Transl Med. (2014) 6:257re6. 10.1126/scitranslmed.3008933
    1. Ortiz-Catalan M, Mastinu E, Brånemark R, Håkansson B. Direct Neural Sensory Feedback and Control via Osseointegration. In: XVI World Congress of the International Society for Prosthetics and Orthotics (ISPO), Cape Town: (2017).
    1. Kuiken TA, Marasco PD, Lock BA, Harden RN, Dewald JPA. Redirection of cutaneous sensation from the hand to the chest skin of human amputees with targeted reinnervation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. (2007) 104:20061–6. 10.1073/pnas.0706525104
    1. Serino A, Akselrod M, Salomon R, Martuzzi R, Blefari ML, Canzoneri E, et al. . Upper limb cortical maps in amputees with targeted muscle and sensory reinnervation. Brain (2017) 140:2993–3011. 10.1093/brain/awx242
    1. Chan BL, Witt R, Charrow AP, Magee A, Howard R, Pasquina PF, et al. . Mirror therapy for phantom limb pain. N Engl J Med. (2007) 357:2206–7. 10.1056/NEJMc071927
    1. Cacchio A, De Blasis E, Necozione S, Orio F di, Santilli V. Mirror therapy for chronic complex regional pain syndrome type 1 and stroke. N Engl J Med. (2009) 361:634–6. 10.1056/NEJMc0902799
    1. Bowering KJ, Connell NEO, Tabor A, Catley MJ, Leake HB, Moseley GL, et al. . The effects of graded motor imagery and its components on chronic pain: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Pain (2013) 14:3–13. 10.1016/j.jpain.2012.09.007
    1. Moseley GL. Is successful rehabilitation of complex regional pain syndrome due to sustained attention to the affected limb? A randomised clinical trial. Pain (2005) 114:54–61. 10.1016/j.pain.2004.11.024
    1. Moseley GL. Graded motor imagery for pathologic pain: a randomized controlled trial. Neurology (2006) 67:2129–34. 10.1212/01.wnl.0000249112.56935.32
    1. Johnson S, Hall J, Barnett S, Draper M, Derbyshire G, Haynes L, et al. . Using graded motor imagery for complex regional pain syndrome in clinical practice: failure to improve pain. Eur J Pain (2012) 16:550–61. 10.1002/j.1532-2149.2011.00064.x
    1. Brunelli S, Morone G, Iosa M, Ciotti C, De Giorgi R, Foti C, et al. . Efficacy of progressive muscle relaxation, mental imagery, and phantom exercise training on phantom limb: a randomized controlled trial. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. (2015) 96:181–7. 10.1016/j.apmr.2014.09.035
    1. Milde C, Rance M, Kirsch P, Trojan J, Fuchs X, Foell J, et al. . Do mirror glasses have the same effect on brain activity as a mirror box? Evidence from a functional magnetic resonance imaging study with healthy subjects. PLoS ONE (2015) 10:e0127694. 10.1371/journal.pone.0127694
    1. Dunn J, Yeo E, Moghaddampour P, Chau B, Humbert S. Virtual and augmented reality in the treatment of phantom limb pain: a literature review. NeuroRehabilitation (2017) 40:595–601. 10.3233/NRE-171447
    1. Barbin J, Seetha V, Casillas JM, Paysant J, Pérennou D. The effects of mirror therapy on pain and motor control of phantom limb in amputees: a systematic review. Ann Phys Rehabil Med. (2016) 59:270–5. 10.1016/j.rehab.2016.04.001
    1. Ramachandran VS, Blakeslee S. Phantoms in the Brain: Probing the Mysteries of the Human Mind. New York, NY: William Morrow; (1998).
    1. Brodie EE, Whyte A, Niven CA. Analgesia through the looking-glass? A randomized controlled trial investigating the effect of viewing a “virtual” limb upon phantom limb pain, sensation and movement. Eur J Pain (2007) 11:428–36. 10.1016/j.ejpain.2006.06.002
    1. Schmalzl L, Ragnö C, Ehrsson HH. An alternative to traditional mirror therapy. Clin J Pain (2013) 29:e10–8. 10.1097/AJP.0b013e3182850573
    1. Ichinose A, Sano Y, Osumi M, Sumitani M, Kumagaya SI, Kuniyoshi Y. Somatosensory feedback to the cheek during virtual visual feedback therapy enhances pain alleviation for phantom arms. Neurorehabil Neural Repair (2017) 31:717–25. 10.1177/1545968317718268
    1. Tan DW, Schiefer MA, Keith MW, Anderson JR, Tyler J, Tyler DJ. A neural interface provides long-term stable natural touch perception. Sci Transl Med. (2014) 6:257ra138. 10.1126/scitranslmed.3008669
    1. Rossini PM, Micera S, Benvenuto A, Carpaneto J, Cavallo G, Citi L, et al. . Double nerve intraneural interface implant on a human amputee for robotic hand control. Clin Neurophysiol. (2010) 121:777–83. 10.1016/j.clinph.2010.01.001
    1. Horch K, Meek S, Taylor TG, Hutchinson DT. Object discrimination with an artificial hand using electrical stimulation of peripheral tactile and proprioceptive pathways with intrafascicular electrodes. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng. (2011) 19:483–9. 10.1109/TNSRE.2011.2162635
    1. Dietrich C, Walter-Walsh K, Preissler S, Hofmann GO, Witte OW, Miltner WHRR, et al. . Sensory feedback prosthesis reduces phantom limb pain: proof of a principle. Neurosci Lett. (2012) 507:97–100. 10.1016/j.neulet.2011.10.068
    1. Ortiz-Catalan M, Sander N, Kristoffersen MB, Håkansson B, Brånemark R. Treatment of phantom limb pain (PLP) based on augmented reality and gaming controlled by myoelectric pattern recognition : a case study of a chronic PLP patient. Front Neurosci. (2014) 8:24. 10.3389/fnins.2014.00024
    1. Lendaro E, Mastinu E, Håkansson B, Ortiz-Catalan M. Real-time classification of non-weight bearing lower-limb movements using EMG to facilitate phantom motor execution: engineering and case study application on phantom limb pain. Front Neurol. (2017) 8:1–12. 10.3389/fneur.2017.00470
    1. Gagné M, Reilly KT, Hétu S, Mercier C. Motor control over the phantom limb in above-elbow amputees and its relationship with phantom limb pain. Neuroscience (2009) 162:78–86. 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.04.061
    1. Kikkert S, Mezue M, Henderson D, Johansen-berg H, Tracey I, Makin TR. Motor correlates of phantom limb pain. Cortex (2017) 95:29–36. 10.1016/j.cortex.2017.07.015
    1. Lendaro E, Hermansson L, Burger H, Van der Sluis CK, McGuire BE, Pilch M, et al. . Phantom motor execution as a treatment for phantom limb pain: protocol of an international, double-blind, randomised controlled clinical trial. BMJ Open (2018) 8:e021039. 10.1136/bmjopen-2017-021039
    1. Farrar JT, Young JP, LaMoreaux L, Werth JL, Poole RM. Clinical importance of changes in chronic pain intensity measured on an 11-point numerical pain rating scale. Pain (2001) 94:149–58. 10.1016/S0304-3959(01)00349-9
    1. Lendaro E, Ortiz-Catalan M. Classification of non-weight bearing lower limb movements: towards a potential treatment for phantom limb pain based on myoelectric pattern recognition. Conf Proc IEEE Eng Med Biol Soc. (2016) 2016:5457–60. 10.1109/EMBC.2016.7591961
    1. Plautz EJ, Milliken GW, Nudo RJ. Effects of repetitive motor training on movement representations in adult squirrel monkeys: role of use versus learning. Neurobiol Learn Mem. (2000) 74:27–55. 10.1006/nlme.1999.3934
    1. Moseley GL, Zalucki NM, Wiech K. Tactile discrimination, but not tactile stimulation alone, reduces chronic limb pain. Pain (2008) 137:600–8. 10.1016/j.pain.2007.10.021
    1. Qi HX, Phillips WS, Kaas JH. Connections of neurons in the lumbar ventral horn of spinal cord are altered after long-standing limb loss in a macaque monkey. Somatosens Mot Res. (2004) 21:229–39. 10.1080/08990220400012588
    1. Rothgangel A, Braun S, Winkens B, Beurskens A, Smeets R. Traditional and augmented reality mirror therapy for patients with chronic phantom limb pain (PACT study): results of a three-group, multicentre single-blind randomized controlled trial. Clin Rehabil. (2018)1:26921551878594. 10.1177/0269215518785948
    1. Oouchida Y, Izumi S-I. Imitation movement reduces the phantom limb pain caused by the abnormality of body schema. In: ICME International Conference on Complex Medical Engineering (CME) (Kobe: IEEE; ). (2012). p. 53–5. 10.1109/ICCME.2012.6275709
    1. McCabe C. Mirror visual feedback therapy. a practical approach. J Hand Ther. (2011) 24:170–9. 10.1016/j.jht.2010.08.003
    1. Bolognini N, Spandri V, Ferraro F, Salmaggi A, Molinari ACL, Fregni F, et al. . Immediate and sustained effects of 5-day transcranial direct current stimulation of the motor cortex in phantom limb pain. J Pain (2015) 16:657–65. 10.1016/j.jpain.2015.03.013
    1. Ahmed MA, Mohamed SA, Sayed D. Long-term antalgic effects of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation of motor cortex and serum beta-endorphin in patients with phantom pain. Neurol Res. (2011) 33:953–8. 10.1179/1743132811Y.0000000045
    1. Pan L, Zhang D, Sheng X, Zhu X. Improving myoelectric control for amputees through transcranial direct current stimulation. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng. (2015) 62:1927–36. 10.1109/TBME.2015.2407491
    1. Ortiz-Catalan M, Gudmundsdottir RA, Kristoffersen MB, Zepeda-Echavarria A, Brånemark R. Promotion of motor execution via myoelectric pattern recognition and augmented/virtual reality as a treatment of phantom limb pain. In: 9th Congress of the European Pain Federation (EFIC), Vienna: (2015).
    1. Perry BN, Mercier C, Pettifer SR, Cole J, Tsao JW. Virtual reality therapies for phantom limb pain. Eur J Pain (2014) 18:897–9. 10.1002/ejp.559
    1. Preston C, Newport R. Analgesic effects of multisensory illusions in osteoarthritis. Rheumatology (2011) 50:2314–5. 10.1093/rheumatology/ker104
    1. Senkowski D, Heinz A. Chronic pain and distorted body image : implications for multisensory feedback interventions. (2016) 69:252–9. 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.08.009
    1. Boesch E, Bellan V, Moseley GL, Stanton TR. The effect of bodily illusions on clinical pain: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Pain (2016) 157:516–29. 10.1097/j.pain.0000000000000423
    1. Giummarra MJ, Georgiou-Karistianis N, Nicholls MER, Gibson SJ, Chou M, Bradshaw JL. Corporeal awareness and proprioceptive sense of the phantom. Br J Psychol. (2010) 101:791–808. 10.1348/000712610X492558
    1. Mohan R, Jensen KB, Petkova VI, Dey A, Barnsley N, Ingvar M, et al. . No pain relief with the rubber hand illusion. PLoS ONE (2012) 7:e52400. 10.1371/journal.pone.0052400

Source: PubMed

Sponsors et collaborateurs

Les conditions médicales

Interventions en matière de drogue

3
S'abonner