A Narrative Review of Early Oral Stepdown Therapy for the Treatment of Uncomplicated Staphylococcus aureus Bacteremia: Yay or Nay?

Michael Dagher, Vance G Fowler Jr, Patty W Wright, Milner B Staub, Michael Dagher, Vance G Fowler Jr, Patty W Wright, Milner B Staub

Abstract

Historically, intravenous (IV) antibiotics have been the cornerstone of treatment for uncomplicated Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia (SAB). However, IV antibiotics are expensive, increase the rates of hospital readmission, and can be associated with catheter-related complications. As a result, the potential role of oral antibiotics in the treatment of uncomplicated SAB has become a subject of interest. This narrative review article aims to summarize key arguments for and against the use of oral antibiotics to complete treatment of uncomplicated SAB and evaluates the available evidence for specific oral regimens. We conclude that evidence suggests that oral step-down therapy can be an alternative for select patients who meet the criteria for uncomplicated SAB and will comply with medical treatment and outpatient follow-up. Of the currently studied regimens discussed in this article, linezolid has the most support, followed by fluoroquinolone plus rifampin.

Keywords: Staphylococcus aureus; antimicrobials; bacteremia; oral administration; step-down therapy.

© The Author(s) 2020. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Infectious Diseases Society of America.

References

    1. Shorr AF, Tabak YP, Killian AD, et al. . Healthcare-associated bloodstream infection: a distinct entity? Insights from a large U.S. database. Crit Care Med 2006; 34:2588–95.
    1. López-Cortés LE, Del Toro MD, Gálvez-Acebal J, et al. . REIPI/SAB group Impact of an evidence-based bundle intervention in the quality-of-care management and outcome of Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Clin Infect Dis 2013; 57:1225–33.
    1. Goto M, Schweizer ML, Vaughan-Sarrazin MS, et al. . Association of evidence-based care processes with mortality in Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia at veterans health administration hospitals, 2003–2014. JAMA Intern Med 2017; 177:1489–97.
    1. Tong SY, Davis JS, Eichenberger E, et al. . Staphylococcus aureus infections: epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, and management. Clin Microbiol Rev 2015; 28:603–61.
    1. Thwaites GE, Edgeworth JD, Gkrania-Klotsas E, et al. . UK Clinical Infection Research Group Clinical management of Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia. Lancet Infect Dis 2011; 11:208–22.
    1. Naber CK, Baddour LM, Giamarellos-Bourboulis EJ, et al. . Clinical consensus conference: survey on gram-positive bloodstream infections with a focus on Staphylococcus aureus. Clin Infect Dis 2009; 48(Suppl 4):S260–70.
    1. Holland TL, Arnold C, Fowler VG Jr. Clinical management of Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia: a review. JAMA 2014; 312:1330–41.
    1. Dworkin RJ, Lee BL, Sande MA, Chambers HF. Treatment of right-sided Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis in intravenous drug users with ciprofloxacin and rifampicin. Lancet 1989; 2:1071–3.
    1. Heldman AW, Hartert TV, Ray SC, et al. . Oral antibiotic treatment of right-sided staphylococcal endocarditis in injection drug users: prospective randomized comparison with parenteral therapy. Am J Med 1996; 101:68–76.
    1. Keller SC, Dzintars K, Gorski LA, et al. . Antimicrobial agents and catheter complications in outpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy. Pharmacotherapy 2018; 38:476–81.
    1. Mzabi A, Kernéis S, Richaud C, et al. . Switch to oral antibiotics in the treatment of infective endocarditis is not associated with increased risk of mortality in non-severely ill patients. Clin Microbiol Infect 2016; 22:607–12.
    1. Iversen K, Ihlemann N, Gill SU, et al. . Partial oral versus intravenous antibiotic treatment of endocarditis. N Engl J Med 2019; 380:415–24.
    1. Jorgensen SCJ, Lagnf AM, Bhatia S, et al. . Sequential intravenous-to-oral outpatient antibiotic therapy for MRSA bacteraemia: one step closer. J Antimicrob Chemother 2019; 74:489–98.
    1. Carney DN, Fossieck BE Jr, Parker RH, Minna JD. Bacteremia due to Staphylococcus aureus in patients with cancer: report on 45 cases in adults and review of the literature. Rev Infect Dis 1982; 4:1–12.
    1. Thwaites GE; United Kingdom Clinical Infection Research Group (UKCIRG) The management of Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia in the United Kingdom and Vietnam: a multi-centre evaluation. PLoS One 2010; 5:e14170.
    1. Liu C, Bayer A, Cosgrove SE, et al. . Clinical practice guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America for the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in adults and children: executive summary. Clin Infect Dis 2011; 52:285–92.
    1. Allison GM, Muldoon EG, Kent DM, et al. . Prediction model for 30-day hospital readmissions among patients discharged receiving outpatient parenteral antibiotic therapy. Clin Infect Dis 2014; 58:812–9.
    1. Keller SC, Ciuffetelli D, Bilker W, et al. . The impact of an infectious diseases transition service on the care of outpatients on parenteral antimicrobial therapy. J Pharm Technol 2013; 29:205–14.
    1. Lee B, Tam I, Weigel B 4th, et al. . Comparative outcomes of β-lactam antibiotics in outpatient parenteral antibiotic therapy: treatment success, readmissions and antibiotic switches. J Antimicrob Chemother 2015; 70:2389–96.
    1. Means L, Bleasdale S, Sikka M, Gross AE. Predictors of hospital readmission in patients receiving outpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy. Pharmacotherapy 2016; 36:934–9.
    1. Heyd A, Haverstock D. Retrospective analysis of the safety profile of oral and intravenous ciprofloxacin in a geriatric population. Clin Ther 2000; 22:1239–50.
    1. Keren R, Shah SS, Srivastava R, et al. . Pediatric Research in Inpatient Settings Network Comparative effectiveness of intravenous vs oral antibiotics for postdischarge treatment of acute osteomyelitis in children. JAMA Pediatr 2015; 169:120–8.
    1. Richa, Tandon VR, Sharma S, Khajuria V, Mahajan V, Gillani Z. Adverse drug reactions profile of antimicrobials: a 3-year experience, from a tertiary care teaching hospital of India. Indian J Med Microbiol 2015; 33:393–400.
    1. Spires SS, Rebeiro PF, Miller M, et al. . Medically attended catheter complications are common in patients with outpatient central venous catheters. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2018; 39:439–44.
    1. Waagsbø B, Sundøy A, Paulsen EQ. Reduction of unnecessary i.v. antibiotic days using general criteria for antibiotic switch. Scand J Infect Dis 2008; 40:468–73.
    1. Gasparetto J, Tuon FF, Dos Santos Oliveira D, et al. . Intravenous-to-oral antibiotic switch therapy: a cross-sectional study in critical care units. BMC Infect Dis 2019; 19:650.
    1. Krah NM, Bardsley T, Nelson R, et al. . Economic burden of home antimicrobial therapy: OPAT versus oral therapy. Hosp Pediatr 2019; 9:234–40.
    1. Bianchini ML, Kenney RM, Lentz R, Zervos M, Malhotra M, Davis SL. Discharge delays and costs associated with outpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy for high priced antibiotics. Clin Infect Dis. In press.
    1. Stevens DL, Herr D, Lampiris H, et al. . Linezolid versus vancomycin for the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections. Clin Infect Dis 2002; 34:1481–90.
    1. Moise PA, Forrest A, Birmingham MC, Schentag JJ. The efficacy and safety of linezolid as treatment for Staphylococcus aureus infections in compassionate use patients who are intolerant of, or who have failed to respond to, vancomycin. J Antimicrob Chemother 2002; 50:1017–26.
    1. Birmingham MC, Rayner CR, Meagher AK, et al. . Linezolid for the treatment of multidrug-resistant, gram-positive infections: experience from a compassionate-use program. Clin Infect Dis 2003; 36:159–68.
    1. Wilcox M, Nathwani D, Dryden M. Linezolid compared with teicoplanin for the treatment of suspected or proven gram-positive infections. J Antimicrob Chemother 2004; 53:335–44.
    1. Shorr AF, Kunkel MJ, Kollef M. Linezolid versus vancomycin for Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia: pooled analysis of randomized studies. J Antimicrob Chemother 2005; 56:923–9.
    1. Wilcox MH, Tack KJ, Bouza E, et al. . Complicated skin and skin-structure infections and catheter-related bloodstream infections: noninferiority of linezolid in a phase 3 study. Clin Infect Dis 2009; 48:203–12.
    1. Usery JB, Vo NH, Finch CK, et al. . Evaluation of the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Am J Med Sci 2015; 349:36–41.
    1. Willekens R, Puig-Asensio M, Ruiz-Camps I, et al. . Early oral switch to linezolid for low-risk patients with Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infections: a propensity-matched cohort study. Clin Infect Dis 2019; 69:381–7.
    1. Bouza E, Díaz-López MD, Bernaldo de Quirós JC, Rodríguez-Créixems M. Ciprofloxacin in patients with bacteremic infections. The Spanish Group for the Study of Ciprofloxacin. Am J Med 1989; 87:228–31S.
    1. Schrenzel J, Harbarth S, Schockmel G, et al. . Swiss Staphylococcal Study Group A randomized clinical trial to compare fleroxacin-rifampicin with flucloxacillin or vancomycin for the treatment of staphylococcal infection. Clin Infect Dis 2004; 39:1285–92.
    1. Beganovic M, Cusumano JA, Lopes V, LaPlante KL, Caffrey AR. Comparative effectiveness of exclusive exposure to nafcillin or oxacillin, cefazolin, piperacillin/tazobactam, and fluoroquinolones among a national cohort of veterans with methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infection. Open Forum Infect Dis 2019; 6:XXX–XX.
    1. Markowitz N, Quinn EL, Saravolatz LD. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole compared with vancomycin for the treatment of Staphylococcus aureus infection. Ann Intern Med 1992; 117:390–8.
    1. Goldberg E, Paul M, Talker O, et al. . Co-trimoxazole versus vancomycin for the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia: a retrospective cohort study. J Antimicrob Chemother 2010; 65:1779–83.
    1. Paul M, Bishara J, Yahav D, et al. . Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole versus vancomycin for severe infections caused by meticillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus: randomised controlled trial. BMJ 2015; 350:h2219.
    1. Harbarth S, von Dach E, Pagani L, et al. . Randomized non-inferiority trial to compare trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole plus rifampicin versus linezolid for the treatment of MRSA infection. J Antimicrob Chemother 2015; 70:264–72.
    1. Tissot-Dupont H, Gouriet F, Oliver L, et al. . High-dose trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole and clindamycin for Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2019; 54:143–8.
    1. Martínez-Aguilar G, Hammerman WA, Mason EO Jr, Kaplan SL. Clindamycin treatment of invasive infections caused by community-acquired, methicillin-resistant and methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2003; 22:593–8.
    1. Pharmacia & Upjohn Company. Zyvox (Linezolid) Tablets, Injection & Oral Suspension Drug Approval Package. US Food and Drug Administration website. . 2018. Accessed January 2020.
    1. Pfizer. Highlights of Prescribing Information:. Zyvox (Linezolid). US Food and Drug Administration website. . 2018. Accessed January 2020.
    1. Rodvold KA, Neuhauser M. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of fluoroquinolones. Pharmacotherapy 2001; 21(10 Pt 2):233S–52S.
    1. Gade ND, Qazi MS. Fluoroquinolone therapy in Staphylococcus aureus infections: where do we stand? J Lab Physicians 2013; 5:109–12.
    1. Oliphant CM, Green GM. Quinolones: a comprehensive review. Am Fam Physician 2002; 65:455–64.
    1. Gorwitz RJ, Jernigan DB, Powers JH, Jernigan JA.. Participants in the CDC convened experts’ meeting on management of MRSA in the community. Strategies for clinical management of MRSA in the community: summary of an experts’ meeting convened by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2006. .Accessed January 2020.
    1. Melinta Therapeutics Inc. BAXDELA (Delafloxacin) Tablets, for Oral Use (Package Insert). Lincolnshire, Illinois, USA: Melinta Therapeutics Inc; 2019.
    1. Remy JM, Tow-Keogh CA, McConnell TS, et al. . Activity of delafloxacin against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: resistance selection and characterization. J Antimicrob Chemother 2012; 67:2814–20.
    1. Pullman J, Gardovskis J, Farley B, et al. . PROCEED Study Group Efficacy and safety of delafloxacin compared with vancomycin plus aztreonam for acute bacterial skin and skin structure infections: a phase 3, double-blind, randomized study. J Antimicrob Chemother 2017; 72:3471–80.
    1. O’Riordan W, McManus A, Teras J, et al. . PROCEED Study Group A comparison of the efficacy and safety of intravenous followed by oral delafloxacin with vancomycin plus aztreonam for the treatment of acute bacterial skin and skin structure infections: a phase 3, multinational, double-blind, randomized study. Clin Infect Dis 2018; 67:657–66.
    1. McCurdy S, Keedy K, Lawrence L, et al. . Efficacy of delafloxacin versus moxifloxacin against bacterial respiratory pathogens in adults with community-acquired bacterial pneumonia (CABP): microbiology results from the delafloxacin phase 3 CABP trial. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. In press.
    1. University Hospital Tours. Oral switch during treatment of left-sided endocarditis due ot multi-susceptiple staphylococcus. Available at: . Accessed 30 March 2020.
    1. Janssen Pharnaceuticals Inc. LEVAQUIN (Levofloxacin) Tablets, for Oral Use (Drug Insert). Titusville, NJ: Janssen Pharmaceuticals Inc; 2019.
    1. Pharmacia & Upjohn Co. Cleocin HCL Clindamycin Hydrochloride Capsules, USP (Package Insert). New York, NY, USA: Pfizer; 2019.
    1. Bouazza N, Pestre V, Jullien V, et al. . Population pharmacokinetics of clindamycin orally and intravenously administered in patients with osteomyelitis. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2012; 74:971–7.
    1. Agwuh KN, MacGowan A. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the tetracyclines including glycylcyclines. J Antimicrob Chemother 2006; 58:256–65.
    1. Levison ME, Levison JH. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of antibacterial agents. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2009; 23:791–815, vii.
    1. Lawlor MT, Sullivan MC, Levitz RE, et al. . Treatment of prosthetic valve endocarditis due to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus with minocycline. J Infect Dis 1990; 161:812–4.
    1. Ruhe JJ, Monson T, Bradsher RW, Menon A. Use of long-acting tetracyclines for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections: case series and review of the literature. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 40:1429–34.
    1. Merck & Co. Inc. SIVEXTRO (Tedizolid Phosphate) Tablet, for Oral Use (Drug Insert). Whitehouse Station, New Jersey, USA: Merck & Co. Inc; 2019.
    1. Prokocimer P, De Anda C, Fang E, et al. . Tedizolid phosphate vs linezolid for treatment of acute bacterial skin and skin structure infections: the ESTABLISH-1 randomized trial. JAMA 2013; 309:559–69.
    1. Bupha-Intr O, Blackmore T, Bloomfield M. Efficacy of early oral switch with beta-lactams for low-risk Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. In press.
    1. Fowler VG Jr, Li J, Corey GR, et al. . Role of echocardiography in evaluation of patients with Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia: experience in 103 patients. J Am Coll Cardiol 1997; 30:1072–8.
    1. Ringberg H, Thorén A, Lilja B. Metastatic complications of Staphylococcus aureus septicemia. To seek is to find. Infection 2000; 28:132–6.
    1. Rasmussen RV, Høst U, Arpi M, et al. . Prevalence of infective endocarditis in patients with Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia: the value of screening with echocardiography. Eur J Echocardiogr 2011; 12:414–20.
    1. Holland TL, Raad I, Boucher HW, et al. . Staphylococcal Bacteremia Investigators Effect of algorithm-based therapy vs usual care on clinical success and serious adverse events in patients with staphylococcal bacteremia: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2018; 320:1249–58.
    1. Holland TL, Chambers HF, Boucher HW, et al. . Considerations for clinical trials of Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infection in adults. Clin Infect Dis 2019; 68:865–72.
    1. Minejima E, Mai N, Bui N, et al. . Defining the breakpoint duration of Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia predictive of poor outcomes. Clin Infect Dis 2020; 70:566–73.
    1. Davis DP, Wold RM, Patel RJ, et al. . The clinical presentation and impact of diagnostic delays on emergency department patients with spinal epidural abscess. J Emerg Med 2004; 26:285–91.
    1. Darouiche RO, Hamill RJ, Greenberg SB, et al. . Bacterial spinal epidural abscess. Review of 43 cases and literature survey. Medicine (Baltimore) 1992; 71:369–85.
    1. McHenry MC, Easley KA, Locker GA. Vertebral osteomyelitis: long-term outcome for 253 patients from 7 Cleveland-area hospitals. Clin Infect Dis 2002; 34:1342–50.
    1. Jensen AG, Espersen F, Skinhøj P, Frimodt-Møller N. Bacteremic Staphylococcus aureus spondylitis. Arch Intern Med 1998; 158:509–17.
    1. Espersen F, Frimodt-Møller N. Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis. A review of 119 cases. Arch Intern Med 1986; 146:1118–21.
    1. Figueiredo LT, Ruiz-Junior E, Schirmbeck T. Infective endocarditis (IE) first diagnosed at autopsy: analysis of 31 cases in Ribeirão Preto, Brazil. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 2001; 43:213–6.
    1. Røder BL, Wandall DA, Frimodt-Møller N, et al. . Clinical features of Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis: a 10-year experience in Denmark. Arch Intern Med 1999; 159:462–9.
    1. Coffey S, Harper AR, Cairns BJ, et al. . Clinical information has low sensitivity for postmortem diagnosis of heart valve disease. Heart 2017; 103:1031–5.
    1. Bai AD, Agarwal A, Steinberg M, et al. . Clinical predictors and clinical prediction rules to estimate initial patient risk for infective endocarditis in Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Microbiol Infect 2017; 23:900–6.
    1. Daniel WG, Erbel R, Kasper W, et al. . Safety of transesophageal echocardiography. A multicenter survey of 10,419 examinations. Circulation 1991; 83:817–21.
    1. Khandheria BK, Seward JB, Tajik AJ. Transesophageal echocardiography. Mayo Clin Proc 1994; 69:856–63.
    1. Joseph JP, Meddows TR, Webster DP, et al. . Prioritizing echocardiography in Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia. J Antimicrob Chemother 2013; 68:444–9.
    1. Kaasch AJ, Fowler VG Jr, Rieg S, et al. . Use of a simple criteria set for guiding echocardiography in nosocomial Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Clin Infect Dis 2011; 53:1–9.
    1. Khatib R, Sharma M. Echocardiography is dispensable in uncomplicated Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Medicine (Baltimore) 2013; 92:182–8.
    1. Van Hal SJ, Mathur G, Kelly J, et al. . The role of transthoracic echocardiography in excluding left sided infective endocarditis in Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia. J Infect 2005; 51:218–21.
    1. Rosen AB, Fowler VG Jr, Corey GR, et al. . Cost-effectiveness of transesophageal echocardiography to determine the duration of therapy for intravascular catheter-associated Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Ann Intern Med 1999; 130:810–20.
    1. Bai AD, Steinberg M, Showler A, et al. . Diagnostic accuracy of transthoracic echocardiography for infective endocarditis findings using transesophageal echocardiography as the reference standard: a meta-analysis. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 2017; 30:639–46 e8.
    1. Gomes A, Glaudemans AWJM, Touw DJ, et al. . Diagnostic value of imaging in infective endocarditis: a systematic review. Lancet Infect Dis 2017; 17:e1–e14.
    1. Berrevoets MAH, Kouijzer IJE, Aarntzen EHJG, et al. . 18F-FDG PET/CT optimizes treatment in Staphylococcus Aureus bacteremia and is associated with reduced mortality. J Nucl Med 2017; 58:1504–10.
    1. Abikhzer G, Martineau P, Gregoire J, Finnerty V, Harel F, Pelletier-Galarneau M. [(18)F]FDG-PET CT for the evaluation of native valve endocarditis. J Nucl Cardiol. In press.
    1. Kaasch AJ, Fätkenheuer G, Prinz-Langenohl R, et al. . SABATO trial group (with linked authorship to the individuals in the Acknowledgements section) Early oral switch therapy in low-risk Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infection (SABATO): study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials 2015; 16:450.
    1. Stryjewski ME, Lentnek A, O’Riordan W, et al. . A randomized phase 2 trial of telavancin versus standard therapy in patients with uncomplicated Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia: the ASSURE study. BMC Infect Dis 2014; 14:289.
    1. Souli M, Ruffin F, Choi SH, et al. . Changing characteristics of Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia: results from a 21-year, prospective, longitudinal study. Clin Infect Dis 2019; 69:1868–77.
    1. Li HK, Scarborough M, Zambellas R, et al. . Oral versus intravenous antibiotic treatment for bone and joint infections (OVIVA): study protocol for a randomised controlled trial. Trials 2015; 16:583.
    1. Thwaites GE, Scarborough M, Szubert A, et al. . United Kingdom Clinical Infection Research Group (UKCIRG) Adjunctive rifampicin for Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia (ARREST): a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2018; 391:668–78.
    1. Tong SYC, Lye DC, Yahav D, et al. . Australasian Society for Infectious Diseases Clinical Research Network Effect of vancomycin or daptomycin with vs without an antistaphylococcal β-lactam on mortality, bacteremia, relapse, or treatment failure in patients with MRSA bacteremia: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2020; 323:527–37.

Source: PubMed

Sponsors et collaborateurs

Les conditions médicales

Interventions en matière de drogue

3
S'abonner