Inflammatory responses and inflammation-associated diseases in organs

Linlin Chen, Huidan Deng, Hengmin Cui, Jing Fang, Zhicai Zuo, Junliang Deng, Yinglun Li, Xun Wang, Ling Zhao, Linlin Chen, Huidan Deng, Hengmin Cui, Jing Fang, Zhicai Zuo, Junliang Deng, Yinglun Li, Xun Wang, Ling Zhao

Abstract

Inflammation is a biological response of the immune system that can be triggered by a variety of factors, including pathogens, damaged cells and toxic compounds. These factors may induce acute and/or chronic inflammatory responses in the heart, pancreas, liver, kidney, lung, brain, intestinal tract and reproductive system, potentially leading to tissue damage or disease. Both infectious and non-infectious agents and cell damage activate inflammatory cells and trigger inflammatory signaling pathways, most commonly the NF-κB, MAPK, and JAK-STAT pathways. Here, we review inflammatory responses within organs, focusing on the etiology of inflammation, inflammatory response mechanisms, resolution of inflammation, and organ-specific inflammatory responses.

Keywords: chemokines; cytokines; inflammation; inflammatory signaling pathways; organ diseases.

Conflict of interest statement

CONFLICTS OF INTEREST There are no conflicts of interest.

Figures

Figure 1. TLR signaling
Figure 1. TLR signaling
MyD88-dependent and TRIF-dependent pathways are shown. Signaling through TLRs activates intracellular signaling cascades that lead to nuclear translocation of AP-1 and NF-κB or IRF3, which regulates the inflammatory response.
Figure 2. NF-κB pathway
Figure 2. NF-κB pathway
This pathway is triggered by TLRs and inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF and IL-1, leading to activation of RelA/p50 complexes that regulate expression of inflammatory cytokines. NF-κB signaling requires IKK subunits. which regulate pathway activation through IκB phosphorylation.
Figure 3. MAPK pathway
Figure 3. MAPK pathway
This pathway mediates intracellular signaling initiated by extracellular stimuli, such as stress and cytokines. MAPKKKs phosphorylate and activate MAPKKs, which in turn phosphorylate and activate MAPKs. The mammalian MAPK family includes Erk1/2, JNK, and p38. In the Erk1/2 pathway, Erk1/2 is activated by MKK1/2, which is activated by Raf. In the JNK pathway, JNK is activated by MKK4/7, which is activated by MEKK1/4, ASK1, and MLK3. In the p38 pathway, p38 is activated by MKK3/6, which is activated by MLK3, TAK, and DLK. Activated MAPKs phosphorylate various proteins, including transcription factors, resulting in regulation of inflammatory responses.
Figure 4. JAK-STAT pathway
Figure 4. JAK-STAT pathway
Following IL-6 binding, signal is transduced by a receptor to activate the JAKs, which then activate STATs. STATs are dephosphorylated in the nucleus, leading to activation of downstream cytokines.

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Source: PubMed

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