Breast Milk and the Importance of Chrononutrition

Mario Daniel Caba-Flores, Angel Ramos-Ligonio, Alberto Camacho-Morales, Carmen Martínez-Valenzuela, Rubí Viveros-Contreras, Mario Caba, Mario Daniel Caba-Flores, Angel Ramos-Ligonio, Alberto Camacho-Morales, Carmen Martínez-Valenzuela, Rubí Viveros-Contreras, Mario Caba

Abstract

During pregnancy the human fetus receives timed cues from the circadian rhythms of temperature, metabolites, and hormones from the mother. This influence is interrupted after parturition, the infant does not secrete melatonin and their circadian rhythms are still immature. However, evolution provided the solution to this problem. The newborn can continue receiving the mother's timed cues through breastmilk. Colostrum, transitional, and mature human milk are extraordinary complex biofluids that besides nutrients, contain an array of other non-nutritive components. Upon birth the first milk, colostrum, is rich in bioactive, immunological factors, and in complex oligosaccharides which help the proper establishment of the microbiome in the gut, which is crucial for the infants' health. Hormones, such as glucocorticoids and melatonin, transfer from the mother's plasma to milk, and then the infant is exposed to circadian cues from their mother. Also, milk components of fat, proteins, amino acids, and endogenous cannabinoids, among others, have a markedly different concentration between day and night. In the present review, we give an overview of nutritive and non-nutritive components and their daily rhythms in human milk and explore their physiological importance for the infant. Finally, we highlight some interventions with a circadian approach that emphasize the importance of circadian rhythms in the newborn for their survival, proper growth, and development. It is estimated that ~600,000 deaths/year are due to suboptimal breastfeeding. It is advisable to increase the rate of exclusive breastfeeding, during the day and night, as was established by the evolution of our species.

Keywords: cannabinoids; chrononutrition; circadian feeding; glucocorticoids; melatonin; oligosaccharides; secretory IgA; tryptophan.

Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Copyright © 2022 Caba-Flores, Ramos-Ligonio, Camacho-Morales, Martínez-Valenzuela, Viveros-Contreras and Caba.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Components of human milk and differences between colostrum and mature milk. (A) Macro and micronutrients, components of the immune system, and other components. Modified from (7, 9, 10, 14, 15). (B) Concentration of some components in colostrum and in mature milk. Modified from (, –14, 16).
Figure 2
Figure 2
Daily rhythm in some milk components and effect of light/dark conditions on infant development. (A) Changes in concentration of glucocorticoids (GLUC), melatonin (MEL), tryptophan (TRP), fat and 2-arachidonoyl glycerol (2-AG) in 24 h. Modified from (5, 6, 33, 35, 36). (B) Effect of constant light (Light/Light) or 12 h light and 12 h dark (Light/Dark) on food intake (FI), weight gain (WG), and length of hospital stay in infants at the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). Blue line and dashed lines infants in Light/Dark; Red line and dashed lines infants in Light/Dark. Note the shorter hospital stay and the increase in food intake and weight gain in infants in Light/Dark cycle in comparison to infants in Light/Light conditions. Modified from (45).

References

    1. Guerrero-Vargas NN, Espitia-Bautista E, Buijs RM, Escobar C. Shift-work: is time of eating determining metabolic health? evidence from animal models. Proc Nutr Soc. (2018) 77:199–215. 10.1017/S0029665117004128
    1. Flanagan A, Bechtold DA, Pot GK, Johnston JD. Chrono-nutrition: from molecular and neuronal mechanisms to human epidemiology and timed feeding patterns. J Neurochem. (2021) 157:53–72. 10.1111/jnc.15246
    1. Tahara Y, Shibata S. Chrono-biology, chrono-pharmacology, and chrono-nutrition. J Pharmacol Sci. (2014) 124:320–35. 10.1254/jphs.13R06CR
    1. Mitoulas LR, Kent JC, Cox DB, Owens RA, Sherriff JL, Hartmann PE. Variation in fat, lactose and protein in human milk over 24 h and throughout the first year of lactation. Br J Nutr. (2002) 88:29–37. 10.1079/BJN2002579
    1. van der Voorn B, de Waard M, van Goudoever JB, Rotteveel J, Heijboer AC, Finken MJ. Breast-milk cortisol and cortisone concentrations follow the diurnal rhythm of maternal hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis activity. J Nutr. (2016) 146:2174–9. 10.3945/jn.116.236349
    1. Honorio-França AC, Hara CCP, Ormonde JVS, Nunes GT, França EL. Human colostrum melatonin exhibits a day-night variation and modulates the activity of colostral phagocytes. J Appl Biomed. (2013) 11:153–62. 10.2478/v10136-012-0039-2
    1. Sánchez CL, Cubero J, Sánchez J, Franco L, Rodríguez AB, Rivero M, et al. . Evolution of the circadian profile of human milk amino acids during breastfeeding. J Appl Biomed. (2013) 11:59–70. 10.2478/v10136-012-0020-0
    1. Infant Young Child Feeding. (2021). Available online at: (accessed March 26, 2022).
    1. Kim SY, Yi DY. Components of human breast milk: from macronutrient to microbiome and microRNA. Clin Exp Pediatr. (2020) 63:301–9. 10.3345/cep.2020.00059
    1. Perrella S, Gridneva Z, Lai CT, Stinson L, George A, Bilston-John S, et al. . Human milk composition promotes optimal infant growth, development and health. Semin Perinatol. (2021) 45:151380. 10.1016/j.semperi.2020.151380
    1. Gidrewicz DA, Fenton TR. A systematic review and meta-analysis of the nutrient content of preterm and term breast milk. BMC Pediatr. (2014) 14:216. 10.1186/1471-2431-14-216
    1. Lönnerdal B. Nutritional and physiologic significance of human milk proteins. Am J Clin Nutr. (2003) 77:1537S−3S. 10.1093/ajcn/77.6.1537S
    1. Zhu J, Dingess KA. The functional power of the human milk proteome. Nutrients. (2019) 11:E1834. 10.3390/nu11081834
    1. Dror DK, Allen LH. Overview of nutrients in human milk. Adv Nutr. (2018) 9:278S−94. 10.1093/advances/nmy022
    1. Badillo-Suárez PA, Rodríguez-Cruz M, Nieves-Morales X. Impact of metabolic hormones secreted in human breast milk on nutritional programming in childhood obesity. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia. (2017) 22:171–91. 10.1007/s10911-017-9382-y
    1. Coppa GV, Gabrielli O, Pierani P, Catassi C, Carlucci A, Giorgi PL. Changes in carbohydrate composition in human milk over 4 months of lactation. Pediatrics. (1993) 91:637–41. 10.1542/peds.91.3.637
    1. Lönnerdal B, Erdmann P, Thakkar SK, Sauser J, Destaillats F. Longitudinal evolution of true protein, amino acids and bioactive proteins in breast milk: a developmental perspective. J NutrBiochem. (2017) 41:1–11. 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2016.06.001
    1. Camacho-Morales A, Caba M, García-Juárez M, Caba-Flores MD, Viveros-Contreras R, Martínez-Valenzuela C. Breastfeeding contributes to physiological immune programming in the newborn. Front Pediatr. (2021) 9:1120. 10.3389/fped.2021.744104
    1. Massmann PF, França EL, Souza EG de, Souza MS, Brune MFSS, Honorio-França AC. Maternal hypertension induces alterations in immunological factors of colostrum and human milk. Front Life Sci. (2013) 7:155–63. 10.1080/21553769.2013.876451
    1. Lindh E. Increased resistance of immunoglobulin A dimers to proteolytic degradation after binding of secretory component. J Immunol. (1975) 114:284–6.
    1. Davidson LA, Lönnerdal B. Persistence of human milk proteins in the breast-fed infant. Acta PaediatrScand. (1987) 76:733–40. 10.1111/j.1651-2227.1987.tb10557.x
    1. Wheeler TT, Hodgkinson AJ, Prosser CG, Davis SR. Immune components of colostrum and milk–a historical perspective. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia. (2007) 12:237–47. 10.1007/s10911-007-9051-7
    1. Briere CE, McGrath JM, Jensen T, Matson A, Finck C. Breast milk stem cells: current science and implications for preterm infants. Adv Neonatal Care. (2016) 16:410–9. 10.1097/ANC.0000000000000338
    1. Li S, Zhang L, Zhou Q, Jiang S, Yang Y, Cao Y. Characterization of stem cells and immune cells in preterm and term mother's milk. J Hum Lact. (2019) 35:528–34. 10.1177/0890334419838986
    1. Witkowska-Zimny M, Kaminska-El-Hassan E. Cells of human breast milk. Cell Mol Biol Lett. (2017) 22:11. 10.1186/s11658-017-0042-4
    1. Trend S, de Jong E, Lloyd ML, Kok CH, Richmond P, Doherty DA, et al. . Leukocyte populations in human preterm and term breast milk identified by multicolour flow cytometry. PLoS ONE. (2015) 10:e0135580. 10.1371/journal.pone.0135580
    1. Kiełbasa A, Gadzała-Kopciuch R, Buszewski B. Cytokines-biogenesis and their role in human breast milk and determination. Int J Mol Sci. (2021) 22:6238. 10.3390/ijms22126238
    1. Carlson SE, Colombo J. Docosahexaenoic acid and arachidonic acid nutrition in early development. Adv Pediatr. (2016) 63:453–71. 10.1016/j.yapd.2016.04.011
    1. Selma-Royo M, Calvo Lerma J, Cortés-Macías E, Collado MC. Human milk microbiome: from actual knowledge to future perspective. Semin Perinatol. (2021) 45:151450. 10.1016/j.semperi.2021.151450
    1. Melnik BC, Schmitz G. MicroRNAs: milk's epigenetic regulators. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. (2017) 31:427–42. 10.1016/j.beem.2017.10.003
    1. Benmoussa A, Provost P. Milk microRNAs in health and disease. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf. (2019) 18:703–22. 10.1111/1541-4337.12424
    1. Bode L. Human milk oligosaccharides: every baby needs a sugar mama. Glycobiology. (2012) 22:1147–62. 10.1093/glycob/cws074
    1. Datta P, Melkus MW, Rewers-Felkins K, Patel D, Bateman T, Baker T, et al. . Human milk endocannabinoid levels as a function of obesity and diurnal rhythm. Nutrients. (2021) 13:2297. 10.3390/nu13072297
    1. Dickmeis T. Glucocorticoids and the circadian clock. J Endocrinol. (2009) 200:3–22. 10.1677/JOE-08-0415
    1. Illnerová H, Buresová M, Presl J. Melatonin rhythm in human milk. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. (1993) 77:838–41. 10.1210/jcem.77.3.8370707
    1. Pundir S, Wall CR, Mitchell CJ, Thorstensen EB, Lai CT, Geddes DT, et al. . Variation of human milk glucocorticoids over 24 hour period. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia. (2017) 22:85–92. 10.1007/s10911-017-9375-x
    1. Cannon AM, Kakulas F, Hepworth AR, Lai CT, Hartmann PE, Geddes DT. The effects of leptin on breastfeeding behaviour. Int J Environ Res Public Health. (2015) 12:12340–55. 10.3390/ijerph121012340
    1. Hall B. Uniformity of human milk. Am J Clin Nutr. (1979) 32:304–12. 10.1093/ajcn/32.2.304
    1. Lubetzky R, Mimouni FB, Dollberg S, Salomon M, Mandel D. Consistent circadian variations in creamatocrit over the first 7 weeks of lactation: a longitudinal study. Breastfeed Med. (2007) 2:15–8. 10.1089/bfm.2006.0013
    1. Paulavičiene IJ. Changes in human milk macronutrient content of non-breastfeeding mothers after delivery and factors or procedures affecting its composition. [doctoral dissertation]. Vilnius University, Vilnius; (2021).
    1. Aydin S, Ozercan HI, Aydin S, Ozkan Y, Daglin F, Oguzoncul F, et al. . Biological rhythm of saliva ghrelin in humans. Biol Rhythm Res. (2006) 37:169–77. 10.1080/09291010600576860
    1. Italianer MF, Naninck EFG, Roelants JA, van der Horst GTJ, Reiss IKM, Goudoever JB, van, et al. . Circadian variation in human milk composition, a systematic review. Nutrients. (2020) 12:E2328. 10.3390/nu12082328
    1. Paulaviciene IJ, Liubsys A, Molyte A, Eidukaite A, Usonis V. Circadian changes in the composition of human milk macronutrients depending on pregnancy duration: a cross-sectional study. Int Breastfeed J. (2020) 15:49. 10.1186/s13006-020-00291-y
    1. Sánchez CL, Cubero J, Sánchez J, Chanclón B, Rivero M, Rodríguez AB, et al. . The possible role of human milk nucleotides as sleep inducers. NutrNeurosci. (2009) 12:2–8. 10.1179/147683009X388922
    1. Vásquez-Ruiz S, Maya-Barrios JA, Torres-Narváez P, Vega-Martínez BR, Rojas-Granados A, Escobar C, et al. . A light/dark cycle in the NICU accelerates body weight gain and shortens time to discharge in preterm infants. Early Hum Dev. (2014) 90:535–40. 10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2014.04.015
    1. Goldsmith SJ, Dickson JS, Barnhart HM, Toledo RT, Eiten-Miller RR. IgA, IgG, IgM and lactoferrin contents of human milk during early lactation and the effect of processing and storage. J Food Prot. (1983) 46:4–7. 10.4315/0362-028X-46.1.4
    1. Peitersen B, Bohn L, Andersen H. Quantitative determination of immunoglobulins, lysozyme, and certain electrolytes in breast milk during the entire period of lactation, during a 24-hour period, and in milk from the individual mammary gland. Acta Paediatr Scand. (1975) 64:709–17. 10.1111/j.1651-2227.1975.tb03909.x
    1. França EL, Nicomedes T. dos R, Calderon I de MP, França ACH. Time-dependent alterations of soluble and cellular components in human milk. Biol Rhythm Res. (2010) 41:333–47. 10.1080/09291010903407441
    1. Morais TC, Honorio-França AC, Silva RR, Fujimori M, Fagundes DLG, França EL. Temporal fluctuations of cytokine concentrations in human milk. Biol Rhythm Res. (2015) 46:811–21. 10.1080/09291016.2015.1056434
    1. Pontes GN, Cardoso EC, Carneiro-Sampaio MMS, Markus RP. Pineal melatonin and the innate immune response: the TNF-alpha increase after cesarean section suppresses nocturnal melatonin production. J Pineal Res. (2007) 43:365–71. 10.1111/j.1600-079X.2007.00487.x
    1. Arduini D, Rizzo G, Parlati E, Dell'Acqua S, Romanini C, Mancuso S. Loss of circadian rhythms of fetal behaviour in a totally adrenalectomized pregnant woman. Gynecol Obstet Invest. (1987) 23:226–9. 10.1159/000298865
    1. Patrick J, Challis J, Campbell K, Carmichael L, Richardson B, Tevaarwerk G. Effects of synthetic glucocorticoid administration on human fetal breathing movements at 34 to 35 weeks' gestational age. Am J Obstet Gynecol. (1981) 139:324–8. 10.1016/0002-9378(81)90019-3
    1. McKenna H, Reiss IKM. The case for a chronobiological approach to neonatal care. Early Hum Dev. (2018) 126:1–5. 10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2018.08.012
    1. Mirmiran M, Maas YGH, Ariagno RL. Development of fetal and neonatal sleep and circadian rhythms. Sleep Med Rev. (2003) 7:321–34. 10.1053/smrv.2002.0243
    1. Caba M, González-Mariscal G, Meza E. Circadian rhythms and clock genes in reproduction: insights from behavior and the female rabbit's brain. Front Endocrinol. (2018) 9:106. 10.3389/fendo.2018.00106
    1. Rivkees SA. The development of circadian rhythms: from animals to humans. Sleep Med Clin. (2007) 2:331–41. 10.1016/j.jsmc.2007.05.010
    1. McGraw K, Hoffmann R, Harker C, Herman JH. The development of circadian rhythms in a human infant. Sleep. (1999) 22:303–10. 10.1093/sleep/22.3.303
    1. Porkka-Heiskanen T, Alanko L, Kalinchuk A, Stenberg D. Adenosine and sleep. Sleep Med Rev. (2002) 6:321–32. 10.1053/smrv.2001.0201
    1. Zhdanova IV, Simmons M, Marcus JN, Busza AC, Leclair OU, Taylor JA. Nocturnal increase in plasma cGMP levels in humans. J Biol Rhythms. (1999) 14:307–13. 10.1177/074873099129000722
    1. Kent JC, Mitoulas LR, Cregan MD, Ramsay DT, Doherty DA, Hartmann PE. Volume and frequency of breastfeedings and fat content of breast milk throughout the day. Pediatrics. (2006) 117:e387–395. 10.1542/peds.2005-1417
    1. Cubero J, Valero V, Sánchez J, Rivero M, Parvez H, Rodríguez AB, et al. . The circadian rhythm of tryptophan in breast milk affects the rhythms of 6-sulfatoxymelatonin and sleep in newborn. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. (2005) 26:657–61.
    1. Cubero J, Narciso D, Terrón P, Rial R, Esteban S, Rivero M, et al. . Chrononutrition applied to formula milks to consolidate infants' sleep/wake cycle. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. (2007) 28:360–6.
    1. Cubero J, Chanclón B, Sánchez S, Rivero M, Rodríguez AB, Barriga C. Improving the quality of infant sleep through the inclusion at supper of cereals enriched with tryptophan, adenosine-5'-phosphate, and uridine-5'-phosphate. NutrNeurosci. (2009) 12:272–80. 10.1179/147683009X423490
    1. Hashimoto S, Kohsaka M, Morita N, Fukuda N, Honma S, Honma K. Vitamin B12 enhances the phase-response of circadian melatonin rhythm to a single bright light exposure in humans. Neurosci Lett. (1996) 220:129–32. 10.1016/S0304-3940(96)13247-X
    1. Ohta T, Ando K, Iwata T, Ozaki N, Kayukawa Y, Terashima M, et al. . Treatment of persistent sleep-wake schedule disorders in adolescents with methylcobalamin (vitamin B12). Sleep. (1991) 14:414–8.
    1. Uchiyama M, Mayer G, Okawa M, Meier-Ewert K. Effects of vitamin B12 on human circadian body temperature rhythm. Neurosci Lett. (1995) 192:1–4. 10.1016/0304-3940(95)11591-J
    1. Goedhart G, van der Wal MF, van Eijsden M, Bonsel GJ. Maternal vitamin B-12 and folate status during pregnancy and excessive infant crying. Early Hum Dev. (2011) 87:309–14. 10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2011.01.037
    1. Kikuchi S, Nishihara K, Horiuchi S, Eto H. The influence of feeding method on a mother's circadian rhythm and on the development of her infant's circadian rest-activity rhythm. Early Hum Dev. (2020) 145:105046. 10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2020.105046
    1. Abdul Jafar NK, Tham EKH, Pang WW, Fok D, Chua MC, Teoh OH, et al. . Association between breastfeeding and sleep patterns in infants and preschool children. Am J Clin Nutr. (2021) 114:1986–96. 10.1093/ajcn/nqab297
    1. Cohen Engler A, Hadash A, Shehadeh N, Pillar G. Breastfeeding may improve nocturnal sleep and reduce infantile colic: potential role of breast milk melatonin. Eur J Pediatr. (2012) 171:729–32. 10.1007/s00431-011-1659-3
    1. García-Pergañeda A, Pozo D, Guerrero JM, Calvo JR. Signal transduction for melatonin in human lymphocytes: involvement of a pertussis toxin-sensitive G protein. J Immunol. (1997) 159:3774–81.
    1. Fernandes PACM, Cecon E, Markus RP, Ferreira ZS. Effect of TNF-alpha on the melatonin synthetic pathway in the rat pineal gland: basis for a “feedback” of the immune response on circadian timing. J Pineal Res. (2006) 41:344–50. 10.1111/j.1600-079X.2006.00373.x
    1. Singhal A, Kennedy K, Lanigan J, Clough H, Jenkins W, Elias-Jones A, et al. . Dietary nucleotides and early growth in formula-fed infants: a randomized controlled trial. Pediatrics. (2010) 126:e946–953. 10.1542/peds.2009-2609
    1. Wang L, Mu S, Xu X, Shi Z, Shen L. Effects of dietary nucleotide supplementation on growth in infants: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Eur J Nutr. (2019) 58:1213–21. 10.1007/s00394-018-1640-2
    1. Pastor N, Soler B, Mitmesser SH, Ferguson P, Lifschitz C. Infants fed docosahexaenoic acid- and arachidonic acid-supplemented formula have decreased incidence of bronchiolitis/bronchitis the first year of life. Clin Pediatr. (2006) 45:850–5. 10.1177/1073858406289801
    1. Hanlon EC, Tasali E, Leproult R, Stuhr KL, Doncheck E, de Wit H, et al. . Sleep restriction enhances the daily rhythm of circulating levels of endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol. Sleep. (2016) 39:653–64. 10.5665/sleep.5546
    1. Monteleone AM, Di Marzo V, Monteleone P, Dalle Grave R, Aveta T, Ghoch ME, et al. . Responses of peripheral endocannabinoids and endocannabinoid-related compounds to hedonic eating in obesity. Eur J Nutr. (2016) 55:1799–805. 10.1007/s00394-016-1153-9
    1. Johnsson IW, Lindberger E, Ahlsson F, Gustafsson J, Lundgren ME. Relation of maternal birthweight with early pregnancy obesity, gestational diabetes, and offspring macrosomia. J Dev Orig Health Dis. (2022). 10.1017/S2040174421000751
    1. Fride E. The endocannabinoid-CB(1) receptor system in pre- and postnatal life. Eur J Pharmacol. (2004) 500:289–97. 10.1016/j.ejphar.2004.07.033
    1. Franco-Antonio C, Santano-Mogena E, Chimento-Díaz S, Sánchez-García P, Cordovilla-Guardia S. A randomised controlled trial evaluating the effect of a brief motivational intervention to promote breastfeeding in postpartum depression. Sci Rep. (2022) 12:373. 10.1038/s41598-021-04338-w
    1. Miller CL, White R, Whitman TL, O'Callaghan MF, Maxwell SE. The effects of cycled versus noncycled lighting on growth and development in preterm infants. Infant Behav Dev. (1995) 18:87–95. 10.1016/0163-6383(95)90010-1
    1. Zores-Koenig C, Kuhn P, Caeymaex L, the Group of Reflection and Evaluation of the Environment of Newborns study group of the French Neonatology Society . Recommendations on neonatal light environment from the French Neonatal Society. Acta Paediatr. (2020) 109:1292–301. 10.1111/apa.15173
    1. Bar S, Milanaik R, Adesman A. Long-term neurodevelopmental benefits of breastfeeding. CurrOpinPediatr. (2016) 28:559–66. 10.1097/MOP.0000000000000389
    1. Wu Y, Lye S, Dennis CL, Briollais L. Exclusive breastfeeding can attenuate body-mass-index increase among genetically susceptible children: a longitudinal study from the ALSPAC cohort. PLoS Genet. (2020) 16:e1008790. 10.1371/journal.pgen.1008790
    1. Pérez-Escamilla R, Martinez JL, Segura-Pérez S. Impact of the baby-friendly hospital initiative on breastfeeding and child health outcomes: a systematic review. Matern Child Nutr. (2016) 12:402–17. 10.1111/mcn.12294
    1. Indrio F, Martini S, Francavilla R, Corvaglia L, Cristofori F, Mastrolia SA, et al. . Epigenetic matters: the link between early nutrition, microbiome, and long-term health development. Front Pediatr. (2017) 5:178. 10.3389/fped.2017.00178
    1. Walters DD, Phan LTH, Mathisen R. The cost of not breastfeeding: global results from a new tool. Health Policy Plan. (2019) 34:407–17. 10.1093/heapol/czz050
    1. WHO Immediate KMC Study Group, Arya S, Naburi H, Kawaza K, Newton S, Anyabolu CH, et al. . Immediate “Kangaroo Mother Care” and survival of infants with low birth weight. N Engl J Med. (2021) 384:2028–38. 10.1056/NEJMoa2026486
    1. Hazelhoff EM, Dudink J, Meijer JH, Kervezee L. Beginning to see the light: lessons learned from the development of the circadian system for optimizing light conditions in the neonatal intensive care unit. Front Neurosci. (2021) 15:634034. 10.3389/fnins.2021.634034

Source: PubMed

Sponsors et collaborateurs

Les conditions médicales

Interventions en matière de drogue

3
S'abonner