Epidemiological studies in incidence, prevalence, mortality, and comorbidity of the rheumatic diseases

Sherine E Gabriel, Kaleb Michaud, Sherine E Gabriel, Kaleb Michaud

Abstract

Epidemiology is the study of the distribution and determinants of disease in human populations. Over the past decade there has been considerable progress in our understanding of the fundamental descriptive epidemiology (levels of disease frequency: incidence and prevalence, comorbidity, mortality, trends over time, geographic distributions, and clinical characteristics) of the rheumatic diseases. This progress is reviewed for the following major rheumatic diseases: rheumatoid arthritis (RA), juvenile rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, osteoarthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, giant cell arteritis, polymyalgia rheumatica, gout, Sjögren's syndrome, and ankylosing spondylitis. These findings demonstrate the dynamic nature of the incidence and prevalence of these conditions--a reflection of the impact of genetic and environmental factors. The past decade has also brought new insights regarding the comorbidity associated with rheumatic diseases. Strong evidence now shows that persons with RA are at a high risk for developing several comorbid disorders, that these conditions may have atypical features and thus may be difficult to diagnose, and that persons with RA experience poorer outcomes after comorbidity compared with the general population. Taken together, these findings underscore the complexity of the rheumatic diseases and highlight the key role of epidemiological research in understanding these intriguing conditions.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Annual incidence of rheumatoid arthritis in Rochester, Minnesota. Shown is the annual incidence rate per 100,000 population by sex: 1955 to 1995. Each rate was calculated as a 3-year centered moving average. Reproduced from [9] with permission.
Figure 2
Figure 2
Mortality in rheumatoid arthritis by sex. Observed mortality in (a) female and (b) male patients with rheumatoid arthritis and expected mortality (based on the Minnesota white population). Observed is solid line, expected is dashed line, and the gray region represents the 95% confidence limits for observed. Reproduced from [25] with permission.
Figure 3
Figure 3
Age-specific mortality in rheumatoid arthritis. Age-specific mortality rates (per 100,000) for women with rheumatoid arthritis (death certificates with any mention of rheumatoid arthritis). Reproduced from [27] with permission.
Figure 4
Figure 4
Annual incidence of psoriatic arthritis by age and sex. Shown is the annual incidence (per 100,000) of psoriatic arthritis by age and sex (1 January 1970 to 31 December 1999; Olmsted County, Minnesota). Broken lines represent smoothed incidence curves obtained using smoothing splines. Reproduced from [55] with permission.
Figure 5
Figure 5
Incidence of osteoarthritis by joint. Shown is the incidence of osteoarthritis of the hand, hip, and knee in members of the Fallon Community Health Plan, 1991 to 1992, by age and sex. Reproduced from [56] with permission.
Figure 6
Figure 6
Incidence of silent myocardial infarction: RA versus non-RA. Shown is the cumulative incidence of silent myocardial infarction in a population-based incidence cohort of 603 RA patients and a matched non-RA comparison group of 603 non-RA individuals from the same underlying population. Reproduced from [108] with permission.
Figure 7
Figure 7
Incidence of sudden cardiac death: RA versus non-RA. Shown is the cumulative incidence of sudden cardiac death in a population-based incidence cohort of 603 rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients and a matched non-RA comparison group from the same underlying population. Reproduced from [108] with permission.
Figure 8
Figure 8
Incidence of congestive heart failure: RA versus non-RA. Shown is a comparison of the cumulative incidence of congestive heart failure in the rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and non-RA cohort, according to years since index date, adjusting for the competing risk for death. Reproduced from [117] with permission.
Figure 9
Figure 9
Relative risks for overall malignancies in RA patients versus general population. *Excluding nonmelanoma skin. †All solid tumors. ‡Excluding lymphatic and hematopoietic. CI, confidence interval; DMARD, disease-modifying antirheumatic drug; MTX, methotrexate; n, number of malignancies; N, population size; SIR, standardized incidence ratio; TNF, tumor necrosis factor. For original references see Smitten and coworkers [122].
Figure 10
Figure 10
Twelve-month mortality after heart failure. Reproduced from [118] with permission.

References

    1. Oliver JE, Silman AJ. What epidemiology has told us about risk factors and aetiopathogenesis in rheumatic diseases. Arthritis Research & Therapy. 2009;11:223. doi: 10.1186/ar2575.
    1. Pedersen JK, Svendsen AJ, Horslev-Petersen K. Incidence of rheumatoid arthritis in the southern part of Denmark from 1995 to 2001. Open Rheumatol J. 2007;1:18–23.
    1. Kaipiainen-Seppanen O, Kautiainen H. Declining trend in the incidence of rheumatoid factor-positive rheumatoid arthritis in Finland 1980–2000. J Rheumatol. 2006;33:2132–2138.
    1. Garcia Rodriguez LA, Tolosa LB, Ruigomez A, Johansson S, Wallander MA. Rheumatoid arthritis in UK primary care: incidence and prior morbidity. Scand J Rheumatol. 2008.
    1. Pedersen JK, Kjaer NK, Svendsen AJ, Horslev-Petersen K. Incidence of rheumatoid arthritis from 1995 to 2001: impact of ascertainment from multiple sources. Rheumatol Int. 2009;29:411–415. doi: 10.1007/s00296-008-0713-6.
    1. Costenbader KH, Chang SC, Laden F, Puett R, Karlson EW. Geographic variation in rheumatoid arthritis incidence among women in the United States. Arch Intern Med. 2008;168:1664–1670. doi: 10.1001/archinte.168.15.1664.
    1. Maradit Kremers H, Gabriel S. Epidemiology of the rheumatic diseases. In: Harris ED Jr, editor. Kelley's Textbook of Rheumatology. 7. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders; 2005. pp. 407–425.
    1. Alamanos Y, Voulgari PV, Drosos AA. Incidence and prevalence of rheumatoid arthritis, based on the 1987 American College of Rheumatology criteria: a systematic review. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 2006;36:182–188. doi: 10.1016/j.semarthrit.2006.08.006.
    1. Doran MF, Pond GR, Crowson CS, O'Fallon WM, Gabriel SE. Trends in incidence and mortality in rheumatoid arthritis in Rochester, Minnesota, over a forty-year period. Arthritis Rheum. 2002;46:625–631. doi: 10.1002/art.509.
    1. Gabriel SE, Crowson CS, Maradit Kremers H, Therneau TM. The rising incidence of rheumatoid arthritis [abstract] Arthritis Rheum. 2008;58:S453. doi: 10.1002/art.23280.
    1. Boyer GS, Benevolenskaya LI, Templin DW, Erdesz S, Bowler A, Alexeeva LI, Goring WP, Krylov MY, Mylov NM. Prevalence of rheumatoid arthritis in circumpolar native populations. J Rheumatol. 1998;25:23–29.
    1. Cimmino MA. Prevalence of rheumatoid arthritis in Italy: the Chiavari study. Ann Rheum Dis. 1998;57:315–318. doi: 10.1136/ard.57.5.315.
    1. Jacobsson LTH, Hanson RL, Knowler WC, Pillemer S, Pettitt DJ, McCance DR, Bennett PH. Decreasing incidence and prevalence of rheumatoid arthritis in Pima Indians over a twenty-five-year period. Arthritis Rheum. 1994;37:1158–1165. doi: 10.1002/art.1780370808.
    1. Saraux A, Guedes C, Allain J, Devauchelle V, Valls I, Lamour A, Guillemin F, Youinou P, Le Goff P. Prevalence of rheumatoid arthritis and spondyloarthropathy in Brittany, France. Societe de Rhumatologie de l'Ouest. J Rheumatol. 1999;26:2622–2627.
    1. Simonsson M, Bergman S, Jacobsson LT, Petersson IF, Svensson B. The prevalence of rheumatoid arthritis in Sweden. Scand J Rheumatol. 1999;28:340–343. doi: 10.1080/03009749950155319.
    1. Carbonell J, Cobo T, Balsa A, Descalzo MA, Carmona L. The incidence of rheumatoid arthritis in Spain: results from a nationwide primary care registry. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2008;47:1088–1092. doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/ken205.
    1. Riise T, Jacobsen BK, Gran JT. Incidence and prevalence of rheumatoid arthritis in the county of Troms, northern Norway. J Rheumatol. 2000;27:1386–1389.
    1. Symmons D, Turner G, Webb R, Asten P, Barrett E, Lunt M, Scott D, Silman A. The prevalence of rheumatoid arthritis in the United Kingdom: new estimates for a new century. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2002;41:793–800. doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/41.7.793.
    1. Gabriel SE, Crowson CS, O'Fallon WM. Mortality in rheumatoid arthritis: have we made an impact in 4 decades? J Rheumatol. 1999;26:2529–2533.
    1. Kvalvik AG, Jones MA, Symmons DP. Mortality in a cohort of Norwegian patients with rheumatoid arthritis followed from 1977 to 1992. Scand J Rheumatol. 2000;29:29–37. doi: 10.1080/030097400750001770.
    1. Krause D, Schleusser B, Herborn G, Rau R. Response to methotrexate treatment is associated with reduced mortality in patients with severe rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2000;43:14–21. doi: 10.1002/1529-0131(200001)43:1<14::AID-ANR3>;2-7.
    1. Riise T, Jacobsen BK, Gran JT, Haga HJ, Arnesen E. Total mortality is increased in rheumatoid arthritis. A 17-year prospective study. Clin Rheumatol. 2001;20:123–127. doi: 10.1007/PL00011191.
    1. Young A, Koduri G, Batley M, Kulinskaya E, Gough A, Norton S, Dixey J. Mortality in rheumatoid arthritis. Increased in the early course of disease, in ischaemic heart disease and in pulmonary fibrosis. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2007;46:350–357. doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/kel253.
    1. Sacks JJ, Helmick CG, Langmaid G. Deaths from arthritis and other rheumatic conditions, United States, 1979–1998. J Rheumatol. 2004;31:1823–1828.
    1. Gonzalez A, Maradit Kremers H, Crowson CS, Nicola PJ, Davis JM, 3rd, Therneau TM, Roger VL, Gabriel SE. The widening mortality gap between rheumatoid arthritis patients and the general population. Arthritis Rheum. 2007;56:3583–3587. doi: 10.1002/art.22979.
    1. Ward MM. Recent improvements in survival in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: better outcomes or different study designs? Arthritis Rheum. 2001;44:1467–1469. doi: 10.1002/1529-0131(200106)44:6<1467::AID-ART243>;2-6.
    1. Ziadé N, Jougla E, Coste J. Population-level influence of rheumatoid arthritis on mortality and recent trends: a multiple cause-of-death analysis in France, 1970–2002. J Rheumatol. 2008;35:1950–1957.
    1. Jacobsson LT, Turesson C, Nilsson JA, Petersson IF, Lindqvist E, Saxne T, Geborek P. Treatment with TNF blockers and mortality risk in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis. 2007;66:670–675. doi: 10.1136/ard.2006.062497.
    1. Choi HK, Hernán MA, Seeger JD, Robins JM, Wolfe F. Methotrexate and mortality in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a prospective study. Lancet. 2002;359:1173–1177. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08213-2.
    1. Goodson NJ, Wiles NJ, Lunt M, Barrett EM, Silman AJ, Symmons DPM. Mortality in early inflammatory polyarthritis: cardiovascular mortality is increased in seropositive patients. Arthritis Rheum. 2002;46:2010–2019. doi: 10.1002/art.10419.
    1. Soderlin MK, Nieminen P, Hakala M. Functional status predicts mortality in a community based rheumatoid arthritis population. J Rheumatol. 1998;25:1895–1899.
    1. Wallberg-Jonsson S, Johansson H, Ohman ML, Rantapaa-Dahlqvist S. Extent of inflammation predicts cardiovascular disease and overall mortality in seropositive rheumatoid arthritis. A retrospective cohort study from disease onset. J Rheumatol. 1999;26:2562–2571.
    1. Gabriel SE, Crowson CS, Maradit Kremers H, Doran MF, Turesson C, O'Fallon WM, Matteson E. Survival in rheumatoid arthritis: a population-based analysis of trends over 40 years. Arthritis Rheum. 2003;48:54–58. doi: 10.1002/art.10705.
    1. Oen KG, Cheang M. Epidemiology of chronic arthritis in childhood. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 1996;26:575–591. doi: 10.1016/S0049-0172(96)80009-6.
    1. von Koskull S, Truckenbrodt H, Holle R, Hormann A. Incidence and prevalence of juvenile arthritis in an urban population of southern Germany: a prospective study. Ann Rheum Dis. 2001;60:940–945. doi: 10.1136/ard.60.10.940.
    1. Kaipiainen-Seppanen O, Savolainen A. Changes in the incidence of juvenile rheumatoid arthritis in Finland. Rheumatology. 2001;40:928–932. doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/40.8.928.
    1. Andersson-Gäre B. Juvenile arthritis – who gets it, where and when? A review of current data on incidence and prevalence. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 1999;17:367–374.
    1. Prahalad S, Ryan MH, Shear ES, Thompson SD, Giannini EH, Glass DN. Juvenile rheumatoid arthritis: linkage to HLA demonstrated by allele sharing in affected sibpairs. Arthritis Rheum. 2000;43:2335–2338. doi: 10.1002/1529-0131(200010)43:10<2335::AID-ANR22>;2-W.
    1. Forre O, Smerdel A. Genetic epidemiology of juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Scand J Rheumatol. 2002;31:123–128. doi: 10.1080/713798345.
    1. Oen K, Fast M, Postl B. Epidemiology of juvenile rheumatoid arthritis in Manitoba, Canada, 1975–92: cycles in incidence. J Rheumatol. 1995;22:745–750.
    1. Gare BA, Fasth A. Epidemiology of juvenile chronic arthritis in southwestern Sweden: a 5-year prospective study. Pediatrics. 1992;90:950–958.
    1. Peterson LS, Mason T, Nelson AM, O'Fallon WM, Gabriel SE. Juvenile rheumatoid arthritis in Rochester, Minnesota 1960–1993. Arthritis Rheum. 1996;39:1385–1390. doi: 10.1002/art.1780390817.
    1. Peterson LS, Mason T, Nelson AM, O'Fallon WM, Gabriel SE. Psychosocial outcomes and health status of adults who have had juvenile rheumatoid arthritis: a controlled, population-based study. Arthritis Rheum. 1997;40:2235–2240. doi: 10.1002/art.1780401219.
    1. Ruperto N, Levinson J, Ravelli A, Shear E, Link Tague B, Murray K, Martini A, Giannini E. Long-term health outcomes and quality of life in American and Italian inception cohorts of patients with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. I. Outcome status. J Rheumatol. 1997;24:945–951.
    1. Zak M, Pedersen FK. Juvenile chronic arthritis into adulthood: a long-term follow-up study. Rheumatology. 2000;39:198–204. doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/39.2.198.
    1. French AR, Mason T, Nelson AM, O'Fallon WM, Gabriel SE. Increased mortality in adults with a history of juvenile rheumatoid arthritis: a population-based study. Arthritis Rheum. 2001;44:523–527. doi: 10.1002/1529-0131(200103)44:3<523::AID-ANR99>;2-1.
    1. Minden K, Niewerth M, Listing J, Biedermann T, Bollow M, Schöntube M, Zink A. Long-term outcome in patients with juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2002;46:2392–2401. doi: 10.1002/art.10444.
    1. Soderlin MK, Borjesson O, Kautiainen H, Skogh T, Leirisalo-Repo M. Annual incidence of inflammatory joint diseases in a population based study in southern Sweden. Ann Rheum Dis. 2002;61:911–915. doi: 10.1136/ard.61.10.911.
    1. Shbeeb M, Uramoto KM, Gibson LE, O'Fallon WM, Gabriel SE. The epidemiology of psoriatic arthritis in Olmsted County, Minnesota, USA, 1982–1991. J Rheumatol. 2000;27:1247–1250.
    1. Harrison BJ, Silman AJ, Barrett EM, Scott DG, Symmons DP. Presence of psoriasis does not influence the presentation or short-term outcome of patients with early inflammatory polyarthritis. J Rheumatol. 1997;24:1744–1749.
    1. Kaipiainen-Seppanen O, Aho K. Incidence of chronic inflammatory joint diseases in Finland in 1995. J Rheumatol. 2000;27:94–100.
    1. Gladman DD, Farewell VT, Wong K, Husted J. Mortality studies in psoriatic arthritis: results from a single outpatient center. II. Prognostic indicators for death. Arthritis Rheum. 1998;41:1103–1110. doi: 10.1002/1529-0131(199806)41:6<1103::AID-ART18>;2-N.
    1. Wong K, Gladman DD, Husted J, Long JA, Farewell VT. Mortality studies in psoriatic arthritis: results from a single outpatient clinic. I. Causes and risk of death. Arthritis Rheum. 1997;40:1868–1872. doi: 10.1002/art.1780401021.
    1. Husted JA, Gladman DD, Farewell VT, Cook RJ. Health-related quality of life of patients with psoriatic arthritis: a comparison with patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2001;45:151–158. doi: 10.1002/1529-0131(200104)45:2<151::AID-ANR168>;2-T.
    1. Wilson FC, Icen M, Crowson CS, McEvoy MT, Gabriel SE, Maradit Kremers H. Time trends in epidemiology and characteristics of psoriatic arthritis over 3 decades: a population-based study. J Rheumatol. 2009;36:361–367.
    1. Oliveria SA, Felson DT, Reed JI, Cirillo PA, Walker AM. Incidence of symptomatic hand, hip, and knee osteoarthritis among patients in a health maintenance organization. Arthritis Rheum. 1995;38:1134–1141. doi: 10.1002/art.1780380817.
    1. Murphy L, Schwartz TA, Helmick CG, Renner JB, Tudor G, Koch G, Dragomir A, Kalsbeek WD, Luta G, Jordan JM. Lifetime risk of symptomatic knee osteoarthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2008;59:1207–1213. doi: 10.1002/art.24021.
    1. Felson DT, Zhang Y. An update on the epidemiology of knee and hip osteoarthritis with a view to prevention. Arthritis Rheum. 1998;41:1343–1355. doi: 10.1002/1529-0131(199808)41:8<1343::AID-ART3>;2-9.
    1. Lawrence RC, Felson DT, Helmick CG, Arnold LM, Choi H, Deyo RA, Gabriel S, Hirsch R, Hochberg MC, Hunder GG, Jordan JM, Katz JN, Kremers HM, Wolfe F, National Arthritis Data Work-group Estimates of the prevalence of arthritis and other rheumatic conditions in the United States. Part II. Arthritis Rheum. 2008;58:26–35. doi: 10.1002/art.23176.
    1. Gabriel SE, Crowson CS, Campion ME, O'Fallon WM. Direct medical costs unique to people with arthritis. J Rheumatol. 1997;24:719–725.
    1. Gabriel SE, Crowson CS, Campion ME, O'Fallon WM. Indirect and nonmedical costs among people with rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis compared with nonarthritic controls. J Rheumatol. 1997;24:43–48.
    1. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality National and regional statistics in the national inpatient sample
    1. Yelin E. The economics of osteoarthritis. In: Brandt K, Doherty M, Lohmander LS, editor. Osteoarthritis. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 1998. pp. 23–30.
    1. Uramoto KM, Michet CJJ, Thumboo J, Sunku J, O'Fallon WM, Gabriel SE. Trends in the incidence and mortality of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) – 1950–1992. Arthritis Rheum. 1999;42:46–50. doi: 10.1002/1529-0131(199901)42:1<46::AID-ANR6>;2-2.
    1. Lawrence RC, Helmick CG, Arnett FC, Deyo RA, Felson DT, Giannini EH, Heyse SP, Hirsch R, Hochberg MC, Hunder GG, Liang MH, Pillemer SR, Steen VD, Wolfe F. Estimates of the prevalence of arthritis and selected musculoskeletal disorders in the United States. Arthritis Rheum. 1998;41:778–799. doi: 10.1002/1529-0131(199805)41:5<778::AID-ART4>;2-V.
    1. Hochberg MC, Perlmutter DL, Medsger TA, Steen V, Weisman MH, White B, Wigley FM. Prevalence of self-reported physician-diagnosed systemic lupus erythematosus in the USA. Lupus. 1995;4:454–456. doi: 10.1177/096120339500400606.
    1. Ward MM, Pyun E, Studenski S. Long-term survival in systemic lupus erythematosus. Patient characteristics associated with poorer outcomes. Arthritis Rheum. 1995;38:274–283. doi: 10.1002/art.1780380218.
    1. Walsh SJ, DeChello LM. Geographical variation in mortality from systemic lupus erythematosus in the United States. Lupus. 2001;10:637–646. doi: 10.1191/096120301682430230.
    1. Wang F, Wang CL, Tan CT, Manivasagar M. Systemic lupus erythematosus in Malaysia: a study of 539 patients and comparison of prevalence and disease expression in different racial and gender groups. Lupus. 1997;6:248–253. doi: 10.1177/096120339700600306.
    1. Xie SK, Feng SF, Fu H. Long term follow-up of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. J Dermatol. 1998;25:367–373.
    1. Salvarani C, Cantini F, Boiardi L, Hunder GG. Polymyalgia rheumatica and giant-cell arteritis. N Engl J Med. 2002;347:261–271. doi: 10.1056/NEJMra011913.
    1. Baldursson O, Steinsson K, Bjornsson J, Lie JT. Giant cell arteritis in Iceland. An epidemiologic and histopathologic analysis. Arthritis Rheum. 1994;37:1007–1012. doi: 10.1002/art.1780370705.
    1. Salvarani C, Gabriel SE, O'Fallon WM, Hunder GG. The incidence of giant cell arteritis in Olmsted County, Minnesota: apparent fluctuations in a cyclic pattern. Ann Intern Med. 1995;123:192–194.
    1. Doran MF, Crowson CS, O'Fallon WM, Hunder GG, Gabriel SE. Trends in the incidence of polymyalgia rheumatica over a 30 year period in Olmsted County, Minnesota, USA. J Rheumatol. 2002;29:1694–1697.
    1. Gonzalez-Gay MA, Garcia-Porrua C, Vazquez-Caruncho M, Dababneh A, Hajeer A, Ollier WE. The spectrum of polymyalgia rheumatica in northwestern Spain: incidence and analysis of variables associated with relapse in a 10 year study. J Rheumatol. 1999;26:1326–1332.
    1. Nordborg E, Bengtsson B. Epidemiology of biopsy-proven giant cell arteritis (GCA) J Intern Med Res. 1990;227:233–236.
    1. Machado EBV, Michet CJ, Jr, Ballard DJ, Hunder GG, Beard CM, Chu CP, O'Fallon WM. Trends in incidence and clinical presentation of temporal arteritis in Olmsted County, Minnesota: 1950–1985. Arthritis Rheum. 1988;31:745–749. doi: 10.1002/art.1780310607.
    1. Hall AP, Barry PE, Dawber TR, McNamara PM. Epidemiology of gout and hyperuricemia. A long-term population study. Am J Med. 1967;42:27–37. doi: 10.1016/0002-9343(67)90004-6.
    1. Currie WJ. Prevalence and incidence of the diagnosis of gout in Great Britain. Ann Rheum Dis. 1979;38:101–106. doi: 10.1136/ard.38.2.101.
    1. Harris CM, Lloyd DCEF, Lewis J. The prevalence and prophylaxis of gout in England. J Clin Epidemiol. 1995;48:1153–1158. doi: 10.1016/0895-4356(94)00244-K.
    1. Isomaki H, von Essen R, Ruutsalo HM. Gout, particularly diuretics-induced, is on the increase in Finland. Scand J Rheumatol. 1977;6:213–216. doi: 10.3109/03009747709095452.
    1. Klemp P, Stansfield SA, Castle B, Robertson MC. Gout is on the increase in New Zealand. Ann Rheum Dis. 1997;56:22–26. doi: 10.1136/ard.56.1.22.
    1. Lin KC, Lin HY, Chou P. Community based epidemiological study on hyperuricemia and gout in Kin-Hu, Kinmen. J Rheumatol. 2000;27:1045–1050.
    1. Chang HY, Pan WH, Yeh WT, Tsai KS. Hyperuricemia and gout in Taiwan: results from the Nutritional and Health Survey in Taiwan (1993–96) J Rheumatol. 2001;28:1640–1646.
    1. Roubenoff R, Klag MJ, Mead LA, Liang KY, Seidler AJ, Hochberg MC. Incidence and risk factors for gout in white men. JAMA. 1991;266:3004–3007. doi: 10.1001/jama.266.21.3004.
    1. Annemans L, Spaepen E, Gaskin M, Bonnemaire M, Malier V, Gilbert T, Nuki G. Gout in the UK and Germany: prevalence, comorbidities and management in general practice 2000–2005. Ann Rheum Dis. 2008;67:960–966. doi: 10.1136/ard.2007.076232.
    1. Mikuls TR, Farrar JT, Bilker WB, Fernandes S, Schumacher HR, Jr, Saag KG. Gout epidemiology: results from the UK General Practice Research Database, 1990–1999. Ann Rheum Dis. 2005;64:267–272. doi: 10.1136/ard.2004.024091.
    1. Pillemer SR, Matteson EL, Jacobsson LT, Martens PB, Melton LJ, 3rd, O'Fallon WM, Fox PC. Incidence of physician-diagnosed primary Sjogren syndrome in residents of Olmsted County, Minnesota. Mayo Clin Proc. 2001;76:593–599. doi: 10.4065/76.6.593.
    1. Haugen AJ, Peen E, Hulten B, Johannessen AC, Brun JG, Halse AK, Haga HJ. Estimation of the prevalence of primary Sjogren's syndrome in two age-different community-based populations using two sets of classification criteria: the Hordaland Health Study. Scand J Rheumatol. 2008;37:30–34. doi: 10.1080/03009740701678712.
    1. Bjerrum KB. Keratoconjunctivitis sicca and primary Sjogren's syndrome in a Danish population aged 30–60 years. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 1997;75:281–286.
    1. Zhang NZ, Shi CS, Yao QP, Pan GX, Wang LL, Wen ZX, Li XC, Dong Y. Prevalence of primary Sjogren's syndrome in China. J Rheumatol. 1995;22:659–661.
    1. Alamanos Y, Tsifetaki N, Voulgari PV, Venetsanopoulou AI, Siozos C, Drosos AA. Epidemiology of primary Sjogren's syndrome in Northwest Greece, 1982–2003. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2006;45:187–191. doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/kei107.
    1. Kabasakal Y, Kitapcioglu G, Turk T, Oder G, Durusoy R, Mete N, Egrilmez S, Akalin T. The prevalence of Sjogren's syndrome in adult women. Scand J Rheumatol. 2006;35:379–383. doi: 10.1080/03009740600759704.
    1. Tomsic M, Logar D, Grmek M, Perkovic T, Kveder T. Prevalence of Sjogren's syndrome in Slovenia. Rheumatology. 1999;38:164–170. doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/38.2.164.
    1. Carbone LD, Cooper C, Michet CJ, Atkinson EJ, O'Fallon WM, Melton LJD. Ankylosing spondylitis in Rochester, Minnesota, 1935–1989. Is the epidemiology changing? Arthritis Rheum. 1992;35:1476–1482. doi: 10.1002/art.1780351211.
    1. Kaipiainen-Seppanen O, Aho K, Heliovaara M. Incidence and prevalence of ankylosing spondylitis in Finland. J Rheumatol. 1997;24:496–499.
    1. Bakland G, Nossent HC, Gran JT. Incidence and prevalence of ankylosing spondylitis in Northern Norway. Arthritis Rheum. 2005;53:850–855. doi: 10.1002/art.21577.
    1. Alamanos Y, Papadopoulos N, Voulgari P, Karakatsanis A, Siozos C, Drosos A. Epidemiology of ankylosing spondylitis in Northwest Greece, 1983–2002. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2002;43:615–618. doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/keh133.
    1. Hukuda S, Minami M, Saito T, Mitsui H, Matsui N, Komatsubara Y, Makino H, Shibata T, Shingu M, Sakou T, Shichikawa K. Spondyloarthropathies in Japan: nationwide questionnaire survey performed by the Japan Ankylosing Spondylitis Society. J Rheumatol. 2001;28:554–559.
    1. De Angelis R, Salaffi F, Grassi W. Prevalence of spondyloarthropathies in an Italian population sample: a regional community-based study. Scand J Rheumatol. 2007;36:14–21. doi: 10.1080/03009740600904243.
    1. Saraux A, Guillemin F, Guggenbuhl P, Roux CH, Fardellone P, Le Bihan E, Cantagrel A, Chary-Valckenaere I, Euller-Ziegler L, Flipo RM, Juvin R, Behier JM, Fautrel B, Masson C, Coste J. Prevalence of spondyloarthropathies in France. Ann Rheum Dis. 2005;64:1431–1435. doi: 10.1136/ard.2004.029207.
    1. Lawrence RC, Everett DF, Benevolenskaya LI, Boyer GS, Erdesz S, Templin DW, Alexeeva LI, Lanier AP, Krylov MYu, Cornoni-Huntley JC, Mylov NM, Heyse S. Spondyloarthropathies in circumpolar populations: I. Design and methods of United States and Russian studies. Arctic Med Res. 1996;55:187–194.
    1. Benevolenskaya LI, Boyer GS, Erdesz S, Templin DW, Alexeeva LI, Lawrence RC, Heyse SP, Krylov MY, Mylov NM, Cornoni-Huntley JC, Everett DF, Goring WP, Bowler A. Spondylarthropathic diseases in indigenous circumpolar populations of Russia and Alaska. Rev Rhum Engl Ed. 1996;63:815–822.
    1. Wolfe F, Michaud K. The risk of myocardial infarction and pharmacologic and nonpharmacologic myocardial infarction predictors in rheumatoid arthritis: A cohort and nested case-control analysis. Arthritis Rheum. 2008;58:2612–2621. doi: 10.1002/art.23811.
    1. Michaud K, Wolfe F. Comorbidities in rheumatoid arthritis. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol. 2007;21:885–906. doi: 10.1016/j.berh.2007.06.002.
    1. Crowson CS, Nicola PJ, Maradit Kremers H, O'Fallon WM, Therneau TM, Jacobsen SJ, Roger VL, Ballman KV, Gabriel SE. How much of the increased incidence of heart failure in rheumatoid arthritis is attributable to traditional cardiovascular risk factors and ischemic heart disease? Arthritis Rheum. 2005;52:3039–3044. doi: 10.1002/art.21349.
    1. Maradit-Kremers H, Nicola PJ, Crowson CS, Ballman KV, Gabriel SE. Cardiovascular death in rheumatoid arthritis: a population-based study. Arthritis Rheum. 2005;52:722–732. doi: 10.1002/art.20878.
    1. Maradit-Kremers H, Crowson CS, Nicola PJ, Ballman KV, Roger VL, Jacobsen SJ, Gabriel SE. Increased unrecognized coronary heart disease and sudden deaths in rheumatoid arthritis: A population-based cohort study. Arthritis Rheum. 2005;52:402–411. doi: 10.1002/art.20853.
    1. Watson D, Rhodes T, Guess H. All-cause mortality and vascular events among patients with RA, OA, or no arthritis in the UK General Practice Research Database. J Rheumatol. 2003;30:1196–1202.
    1. Wolfe F, Freundlich B, Straus WL. Increase in cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disease prevalence in rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol. 2003;30:36–40.
    1. Solomon DH, Karlson EW, Rimm EB, Cannuscio CC, Mandl LA, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, Curhan GC. Cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in women diagnosed with rheumatoid arthritis. Circulation. 2003;107:1303–1307. doi: 10.1161/01.CIR.0000054612.26458.B2.
    1. Fischer LM, Schlienger RG, Matter C, Jick H, Meier CR. Effect of rheumatoid arthritis or systemic lupus erythematosus on the risk of first-time acute myocardial infarction. Am J Cardiol. 2004;93:198–200. doi: 10.1016/j.amjcard.2003.09.037.
    1. Sodergren A, Stegmayr B, Lundberg V, Ohman ML, Wallberg-Jonsson S. Increased incidence of and impaired prognosis after acute myocardial infarction among patients with seropositive rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis. 2007;66:263–266. doi: 10.1136/ard.2006.052456.
    1. Turesson C, Jarenros A, Jacobsson L. Increased incidence of cardiovascular disease in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: results from a community based study. Ann Rheum Dis. 2004;63:952–955. doi: 10.1136/ard.2003.018101.
    1. del Rincon ID. High incidence of cardiovascular events in a rheumatoid arthritis cohort not explained by traditional cardiac risk factors. Arthritis Rheum. 2001;44:2737–2745. doi: 10.1002/1529-0131(200112)44:12<2737::AID-ART460>;2-#.
    1. Wilson PW, D'Agostino RB, Levy D, Belanger AM, Silbershatz H, Kannel WB. Prediction of coronary heart disease using risk factor categories. Circulation. 1998;97:1837–1847.
    1. Nicola PJ, Maradit-Kremers H, Roger VL, Jacobsen SJ, Crowson CS, Ballman KV, Gabriel SE. The risk of congestive heart failure in rheumatoid arthritis: a population-based study over 46 years. Arthritis Rheum. 2005;52:412–420. doi: 10.1002/art.20855.
    1. Davis JM, III, Roger VL, Crowson CS, Kremers HM, Therneau TM, Gabriel SE. The presentation and outcome of heart failure in patients with rheumatoid arthritis differs from that in the general population. Arthritis Rheum. 2008;58:2603–2611. doi: 10.1002/art.23798.
    1. Corrao S, Salli L, Arnone S, Scaglione R, Pinto A, Licata G. Echo-Doppler left ventricular filling abnormalities in patients with rheumatoid arthritis without clinically evident cardiovascular disease. Eur J Clinical Invest. 1996;26:293–297. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2362.1996.133284.x.
    1. Di Franco M, Paradiso M, Mammarella A, Paoletti V, Labbadia G, Coppotelli L, Taccari E, Musca A. Diastolic function abnormalities in rheumatoid arthritis. Evaluation By echo Doppler transmitral flow and pulmonary venous flow: relation with duration of disease. Ann Rheum Dis. 2000;59:227–229. doi: 10.1136/ard.59.3.227.
    1. Mustonen J, Laakso M, Hirvonen T, Mutru O, Pirnes M, Vainio P, Kuikka JT, Rautio P, Lansimies E. Abnormalities in left ventricular diastolic function in male patients with rheumatoid arthritis without clinically evident cardiovascular disease. Eur J Clin Invest. 1993;23:246–253. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2362.1993.tb00769.x.
    1. Smitten AL, Simon TA, Hochberg MC, Suissa S. A meta-analysis of the incidence of malignancy in adult patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Res Ther. 2008;10:R45. doi: 10.1186/ar2404.
    1. Baecklund E, Iliadou A, Askling J, Ekbom A, Backlin C, Granath F, Catrina AI, Rosenquist R, Feltelius N, Sundström C, Klareskog L. Association of chronic inflammation, not its treatment, with increased lymphoma risk in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2006;54:692–701. doi: 10.1002/art.21675.
    1. Karlson EW, Lee IM, Cook NR, Manson JE, Buring JE, Hennekens CH. A retrospective cohort study of cigarette smoking and risk of rheumatoid arthritis in female health professionals. Arthritis Rheum. 1999;42:910–917. doi: 10.1002/1529-0131(199905)42:5<910::AID-ANR9>;2-D.
    1. Criswell LA, Merlino LA, Cerhan JR, Mikuls TR, Mudano AS, Burma M, Folsom AR, Saag KG. Cigarette smoking and the risk of rheumatoid arthritis among postmenopausal women: results from the Iowa Women's Health Study. Am J Med. 2002;112:465–471. doi: 10.1016/S0002-9343(02)01051-3.
    1. Sugiyama D, Nishimura K, Tamaki K, Tsuji G, Nakazawa T, Morinobu A, Kumagai S. Impact of smoking as a risk factor for developing rheumatoid arthritis: a meta-analysis of observational studies. Ann Rheum Dis. 2009
    1. James WH. Hypothesis: gonadal hormones act as confounders in epidemiological studies of the associations between some behavioural risk factors and some pathological conditions. J Theor Biol. 2001;209:97–102. doi: 10.1006/jtbi.2000.2249.
    1. Chakravarty EF, Michaud K, Wolfe F. Skin cancer, rheumatoid arthritis, and tumor necrosis factor inhibitors. J Rheumatol. 2005;32:2130–2135.
    1. Wolfe F, Michaud K. Biologic treatment of rheumatoid arthritis and the risk of malignancy: analyses from a large US observational study. Arthritis Rheum. 2007;56:2886–2895. doi: 10.1002/art.22864.
    1. Dawson JK, Fewins HE, Desmond J, Lynch MP, Graham DR. Fibrosing alveolitis in patients with rheumatoid arthritis as assessed by high resolution computed tomography, chest radiography, and pulmonary function tests. Thorax. 2001;56:622–627. doi: 10.1136/thorax.56.8.622.
    1. Wolfe F, Caplan L, Michaud K. Rheumatoid arthritis treatment and the risk of severe interstitial lung disease. Scand J Rheumatol. 2007;36:172–178. doi: 10.1080/03009740601153774.
    1. Fewins HE, McGowan I, Whitehouse GH, Williams J, Mallya R. High definition computed tomography in rheumatoid arthritis associated pulmonary disease. Br J Rheumatol. 1991;30:214–216. doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/30.3.214.
    1. Gabbay E, Tarala R, Will R, Carroll G, Adler B, Cameron D, Lake FR. Interstitial lung disease in recent onset rheumatoid arthritis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997;156:528–535.
    1. Cortet B, Perez T, Roux N, Flipo RM, Duquesnoy B, Delcambre B, Remy-Jardin M. Pulmonary function tests and high resolution computed tomography of the lungs in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis. 1997;56:596–600. doi: 10.1136/ard.56.10.596.
    1. Hakala M. Poor prognosis in patients with rheumatoid arthritis hospitalized for interstitial lung fibrosis. Chest. 1988;93:114–118. doi: 10.1378/chest.93.1.114.
    1. Hubbard R, Venn A. The impact of coexisting connective tissue disease on survival in patients with fibrosing alveolitis. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2002;41:676–679. doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/41.6.676.
    1. Tanaka N, Kim JS, Newell JD, Brown KK, Cool CD, Meehan R, Emoto T, Matsumoto T, Lynch DA. Rheumatoid arthritis-related lung diseases: CT findings. Radiology. 2004;232:81–91. doi: 10.1148/radiol.2321030174.
    1. Shettar SP, Chattopadhyay C, Wolstenholme RJ, Swinson DR. Diffuse alveolitis on a small dose of penicillamine. Br J Rheumatol. 1984;23:220–224. doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/23.3.220.
    1. Wolfe F, Schurle DR, Lin JJ, Polland SM, Smith TW, Montgomery-Short R, James DL. Upper and lower airway disease in penicillamine treated patients with rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol. 1983;10:406–410.
    1. Ulubas B, Sahin G, Ozer C, Aydin O, Ozgur E, Apaydin D. Bronchiolitis obliterans organizing pneumonia associated with sulfasalazine in a patient with rheumatoid arthritis. Clin Rheumatol. 2004;23:249–251. doi: 10.1007/s10067-003-0848-5.
    1. Alarcón GS, Kremer JM, Macaluso M, Weinblatt ME, Cannon GW, Palmer WR, St Clair EW, Sundy JS, Alexander RW, Smith GJ, Axiotis CA. Risk factors for methotrexate-induced lung injury in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. A multicenter, case-control study. Methotrexate-Lung Study Group. Ann Intern Med. 1997;127:356–364.
    1. Cannon GW. Methotrexate pulmonary toxicity. Rheum Dis Clin North Am. 1997;23:917–937. doi: 10.1016/S0889-857X(05)70366-5.
    1. Green L, Schattner A, Berkenstadt H. Severe reversible interstitial pneumonitis induced by low dose methotrexate: report of a case and review of the literature. J Rheumatol. 1988;15:110–112.
    1. Bongartz T, Sutton AJ, Sweeting MJ, Buchan I, Matteson EL, Montori V. Anti-TNF antibody therapy in rheumatoid arthritis and the risk of serious infections and malignancies: systematic review and meta-analysis of rare harmful effects in randomized controlled trials. JAMA. 2006;295:2275–2285. doi: 10.1001/jama.295.19.2275.
    1. Madhusudan S, Foster M, Muthuramalingam SR, Braybrooke JP, Wilner S, Kaur K, Han C, Hoare S, Balkwill F, Talbot DC, Ganesan TS, Harris AL. A phase II study of etanercept (Enbrel), a tumor necrosis factor alpha inhibitor in patients with metastatic breast cancer. Clin Cancer Res. 2004;10:6528–6534. doi: 10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-04-0730.
    1. Scott DL. Interstitial lung disease and disease modifying antirheumatic drugs. Lancet. 2004;363:1239–1240. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(04)15969-2.
    1. Chatterjee S. Severe interstitial pneumonitis associated with infliximab therapy. Scand J Rheumatol. 2004;33:276–277. doi: 10.1080/03009740410005836.
    1. Kramer N, Chuzhin Y, Kaufman LD, Ritter JM, Rosenstein ED. Methotrexate pneumonitis after initiation of infliximab therapy for rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2002;47:670–671. doi: 10.1002/art.10803.
    1. Doran M, Crowson C, Pond G, O'Fallon W, Gabriel S. Frequency of infection in patients with rheumatoid arthritis compared with controls: a population-based study. Arthritis Rheum. 2002;46:2287–2293. doi: 10.1002/art.10524.
    1. Lacaille D, Guh DP, Abrahamowicz M, Anis AH, Esdaile JM. Use of nonbiologic disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs and risk of infection in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2008;59:1074–1081. doi: 10.1002/art.23913.
    1. Schneeweiss S, Setoguchi S, Weinblatt ME, Katz JN, Avorn J, Sax PE, Levin R, Solomon DH. Anti-tumor necrosis factor alpha therapy and the risk of serious bacterial infections in elderly patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2007;56:1754–1764. doi: 10.1002/art.22600.
    1. Symmons DP. Mortality in rheumatoid arthritis. Br J Rheumatol. 1988;27(suppl 1):44–54.
    1. Allebeck P. Increased mortality in rheumatoid arthritis. Scand J Rheumatol. 1982;11:81–86. doi: 10.3109/03009748209098167.
    1. Koota K, Isomake H, Mutru O. Death rate and causes of death in RA patients during a period of five years. Scand J Rheumatol. 1977;6:241–244. doi: 10.3109/03009747709095458.
    1. Isomaki HA, Mutru O, Koota K. Death rate and causes of death in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Scand J Rheumatol. 1975;4:205–208.
    1. Franklin J, Lunt M, Bunn D, Symmons D, Silman A. Risk and predictors of infection leading to hospitalisation in a large primary-care-derived cohort of patients with inflammatory polyarthritis. Ann Rheum Dis. 2007;66:308–312. doi: 10.1136/ard.2006.057265.
    1. Salliot C, Gossec L, Ruyssen-Witrand A, Luc M, Duclos M, Guignard S, Dougados M. Infections during tumour necrosis factor-alpha blocker therapy for rheumatic diseases in daily practice: a systematic retrospective study of 709 patients. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2007;46:327–334. doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/kel236.
    1. Wolfe F, Caplan L, Michaud K. Treatment for rheumatoid arthritis and the risk of hospitalization for pneumonia: associations with prednisone, disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs, and anti-tumor necrosis factor therapy. Arthritis Rheum. 2006;54:628–634. doi: 10.1002/art.21568.
    1. Curtis JR, Patkar N, Xie A, Martin C, Allison JJ, Saag M, Shatin D, Saag KG. Risk of serious bacterial infections among rheumatoid arthritis patients exposed to tumor necrosis factor alpha antagonists. Arthritis Rheum. 2007;56:1125–1133. doi: 10.1002/art.22504.
    1. Costenbader KH, Glass R, Cui J, Shadick N. Risk of serious infections and malignancies with anti-TNF antibody therapy in rheumatoid arthritis. JAMA. 2006;296:2201. doi: 10.1001/jama.296.18.2201-a. author reply 2203–2204.
    1. Dixon WG, Watson K, Lunt M, Hyrich KL, Silman AJ, Symmons DP. Rates of serious infection, including site-specific and bacterial intracellular infection, in rheumatoid arthritis patients receiving anti-tumor necrosis factor therapy: results from the British Society for Rheumatology Biologics Register. Arthritis Rheum. 2006;54:2368–2376. doi: 10.1002/art.21978.
    1. Brassard P, Lowe AM, Bernatsky S, Kezouh A, Suissa S. Rheumatoid arthritis, its treatments, and the risk of tuberculosis in Quebec, Canada. Arthritis Rheum. 2009;61:300–304. doi: 10.1002/art.24476.
    1. Carmona L, Hernandez-Garcia C, Vadillo C, Pato E, Balsa A, Gonzalez-Alvaro I, Belmonte MA, Tena X, Sanmarti R. Increased risk of tuberculosis in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol. 2003;30:1436–1439.
    1. Brassard P, Kezouh A, Suissa S. Antirheumatic drugs and the risk of tuberculosis. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;43:717–722. doi: 10.1086/506935.
    1. Seong SS, Choi CB, Woo JH, Bae KW, Joung CL, Uhm WS, Kim TH, Jun JB, Yoo DH, Lee JT, Bae SC. Incidence of tuberculosis in Korean patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA): effects of RA itself and of tumor necrosis factor blockers. J Rheumatol. 2007;34:706–711.
    1. Askling J, Fored CM, Brandt L, Baecklund E, Bertilsson L, Cöster L, Geborek P, Jacobsson LT, Lindblad S, Lysholm J, Rantapää-Dahlqvist S, Saxne T, Romanus V, Klareskog L, Feltelius N. Risk and case characteristics of tuberculosis in rheumatoid arthritis associated with tumor necrosis factor antagonists in Sweden. Arthritis Rheum. 2005;52:1986–1992. doi: 10.1002/art.21137.
    1. Winthrop KL, Siegel JN, Jereb J, Taylor Z, Iademarco MF. Tuberculosis associated with therapy against tumor necrosis factor alpha. Arthritis Rheum. 2005;52:2968–2974. doi: 10.1002/art.21382.
    1. Wolfe F, Michaud K, Anderson J, Urbansky K. Tuberculosis infection in patients with rheumatoid arthritis and the effect of infliximab therapy. Arthritis Rheum. 2004;50:372–379. doi: 10.1002/art.20009.
    1. Keane J, Gershon S, Wise RP, Mirabile-Levens E, Kasznica J, Schwieterman WD, Siegel JN, Braun MM. Tuberculosis associated with infliximab, a tumor necrosis factor alpha-neutralizing agent. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:1098–1104. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa011110.
    1. Jick SS, Lieberman ES, Rahman MU, Choi HK. Glucocorticoid use, other associated factors, and the risk of tuberculosis. Arthritis Rheum. 2006;55:19–26. doi: 10.1002/art.21705.
    1. Sichletidis L, Settas L, Spyratos D, Chloros D, Patakas D. Tuberculosis in patients receiving anti-TNF agents despite chemoprophylaxis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2006;10:1127–1132.
    1. Gomez-Reino JJ, Carmona L, Angel Descalzo M. Risk of tuberculosis in patients treated with tumor necrosis factor antagonists due to incomplete prevention of reactivation of latent infection. Arthritis Rheum. 2007;57:756–761. doi: 10.1002/art.22768.
    1. Smitten AL, Choi HK, Hochberg MC, Suissa S, Simon TA, Testa MA, Chan KA. The risk of herpes zoster in patients with rheumatoid arthritis in the United States and the United Kingdom. Arthritis Rheum. 2007;57:1431–1438. doi: 10.1002/art.23112.
    1. Wolfe F, Michaud K, Chakravarty EF. Rates and predictors of herpes zoster in patients with rheumatoid arthritis and non-inflammatory musculoskeletal disorders. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2006;45:1370–1375. doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/kel328.
    1. Strangfeld A, Listing J, Herzer P, Liebhaber A, Rockwitz K, Richter C, Zink A. Risk of herpes zoster in patients with rheumatoid arthritis treated with anti-TNF-alpha agents. JAMA. 2009;301:737–744. doi: 10.1001/jama.2009.146.
    1. Garner SE, Fidan DD, Frankish RR, Judd MG, Towheed TE, Wells G, Tugwell P. Rofecoxib for rheumatoid arthritis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2005;1:CD003685.
    1. Wolfe MM, Lichtenstein DR, Singh G. Gastrointestinal toxicity of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs. N Engl J Med. 1999;340:1888–1899. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199906173402407.
    1. Simon LS, Weaver AL, Graham DY, Kivitz AJ, Lipsky PE, Hubbard RC, Isakson PC, Verburg KM, Yu SS, Zhao WW, Geis GS. Anti-inflammatory and upper gastrointestinal effects of celecoxib in rheumatoid arthritis: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 1999;282:1921–1928. doi: 10.1001/jama.282.20.1921.
    1. Emery P, Zeidler H, Kvien TK, Guslandi M, Naudin R, Stead H, Verburg KM, Isakson PC, Hubbard RC, Geis GS. Celecoxib versus diclofenac in long-term management of rheumatoid arthritis: randomised double-blind comparison. Lancet. 1999;354:2106–2111. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(99)02332-6.
    1. Goldstein JL, Silverstein FE, Agrawal NM, Hubbard RC, Kaiser J, Maurath CJ, Verburg KM, Geis GS. Reduced risk of upper gastrointestinal ulcer complications with celecoxib, a novel COX-2 inhibitor. Am J Gastroenterol. 2000;95:1681–1690. doi: 10.1111/j.1572-0241.2000.02194.x.
    1. Langman M, Jensen DM, Watson DJ, Harper SE, Zhao PL, Quan H, Bolognese JA, Simon TJ. Adverse upper gastrointestinal effects of rofecoxib compared with NSAIDs. JAMA. 1999;282:1929–1933. doi: 10.1001/jama.282.20.1929.
    1. MacDonald TM, Morant SV, Robinson GC, Shield MJ, McGilchrist MM, Murray FE, McDevitt DG. Association of upper gastrointestinal toxicity of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs with continued exposure: cohort study. BMJ. 1997;315:1333–1337.
    1. Garcia Rodriguez LA, Hernandez-Diaz S. The risk of upper gastrointestinal complications associated with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, glucocorticoids, acetaminophen and combinations of these agents. Arthritis Res. 2001;3:98–101. doi: 10.1186/ar146.
    1. Wolfe F, Michaud K. Anemia and renal function in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol. 2006;33:1516–1522.
    1. Haugeberg G, Uhlig T, Falch JA, Halse JI, Kvien TK. Bone mineral density and frequency of osteoporosis in female patients with rheumatoid arthritis: results from 394 patients in the Oslo County Rheumatoid Arthritis register. Arthritis Rheum. 2000;43:522–530. doi: 10.1002/1529-0131(200003)43:3<522::AID-ANR7>;2-Y.
    1. van Staa TP, Geusens P, Bijlsma JW, Leufkens HG, Cooper C. Clinical assessment of the long-term risk of fracture in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2006;54:3104–3112. doi: 10.1002/art.22117.
    1. Lane NE, Pressman AR, Star VL, Cummings SR, Nevitt MC. Rheumatoid arthritis and bone mineral density in elderly women. The Study of Osteoporotic Fractures Research Group. J Bone Miner Res. 1995;10:257–263.
    1. Kroger H, Honkanen R, Saarikoski S, Alhava E. Decreased axial bone mineral density in perimenopausal women with rheumatoid arthritis: a population based study. Ann Rheum Dis. 1994;53:18–23. doi: 10.1136/ard.53.1.18.
    1. Sinigaglia L, Nervetti A, Mela Q, Bianchi G, Del Puente A, Di Munno O, Frediani B, Cantatore F, Pellerito R, Bartolone S, La Montagna G, Adami S. A multicenter cross sectional study on bone mineral density in rheumatoid arthritis. Italian Study Group on Bone Mass in Rheumatoid Arthritis. J Rheumatol. 2000;27:2582–2589.
    1. Solomon DH, Katz JN, Cabral D, Patrick AR, Bukowski JF, Coblyn JS. Osteoporosis management in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: Evidence for improvement. Arthritis Rheum. 2006;55:873–877. doi: 10.1002/art.22350.
    1. Hawley DJ, Wolfe F. Depression is not more common in rheumatoid arthritis: a 10-year longitudinal study of 6,153 patients with rheumatic disease. J Rheumatol. 1993;20:2025–2031.
    1. Ang DC, Choi H, Kroenke K, Wolfe F. Comorbid depression is an independent risk factor for mortality in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol. 2005;32:1013–1019.

Source: PubMed

Sponsors et collaborateurs

Les conditions médicales

Interventions en matière de drogue

3
S'abonner