Obsessive-compulsive disorder

Abstract

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a highly prevalent and chronic condition that is associated with substantial global disability. OCD is the key example of the 'obsessive-compulsive and related disorders', a group of conditions which are now classified together in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, and the International Classification of Diseases, 11th Revision, and which are often underdiagnosed and undertreated. In addition, OCD is an important example of a neuropsychiatric disorder in which rigorous research on phenomenology, psychobiology, pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy has contributed to better recognition, assessment and outcomes. Although OCD is a relatively homogenous disorder with similar symptom dimensions globally, individualized assessment of symptoms, the degree of insight, and the extent of comorbidity is needed. Several neurobiological mechanisms underlying OCD have been identified, including specific brain circuits that underpin OCD. In addition, laboratory models have demonstrated how cellular and molecular dysfunction underpins repetitive stereotyped behaviours, and the genetic architecture of OCD is increasingly understood. Effective treatments for OCD include serotonin reuptake inhibitors and cognitive-behavioural therapy, and neurosurgery for those with intractable symptoms. Integration of global mental health and translational neuroscience approaches could further advance knowledge on OCD and improve clinical outcomes.

Conflict of interest statement

Competing interests

D.J.S. has received research grants and/or consultancy honoraria from Lundbeck and Sun, and is also on the scientific advisory board of the TLC Foundation for Body-Focused Repetitive Behaviours, the Anxiety and Depression Association of America (ADAA), and the South African Depression and Anxiety Support Group. D.L.C.C. has received consultancy honoraria from Pfizer and Libbs, and a scholarship from Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de Sao Paulo (Sao Paulo State Foundation for Research Support). E.C.M. has received a productivity grant from the Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological Development. Y.C.J.R. has been involved in a study on bipolar disorder, supported by GlaxoSmithKline, and is also lead author on clinical guidelines on OCD produced by the Indian Psychiatric Society. R.G.S. has received consultancy honoraria from Lundbeck, and she receives a productivity grant from the Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological Development. H.B.S. has received research grants from Biohaven Pharmaceuticals and royalties from UpToDate, Inc. and Cambridge University Press. She is also on the Board of Directors and the Scientific Advisory Board of ADAA, and is an Associate Editor at JAMA Psychiatry. All other authors declare no competing interests.

Figures

Fig. 1 |. Obsessive–compulsive and related disorders.

The obsessive–compulsive and related disorders (OCRDs) chapter in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) includes obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD; previously classified as an anxiety disorder), body dysmorphic disorder (previously classified as a somatoform disorder) and trichotillomania (previously classified as an impulse control disorder), as well as hoarding disorder and excoriation (skin-picking) disorder (both of which are new to the classification system). In the International Classification of Diseases, 11th Revision (ICD-11), this chapter also includes Tourette syndrome (also classified as a neurodevelopmental disorder), hypochondriasis (also classified as an anxiety disorder) and olfactory reference syndrome (which is new to the classification system). Similar to OCD, the OCRDs are often prevalent but under-recognized conditions that are characterized by repetitive and unwanted thoughts or behaviours. Some OCRDs include preoccupations and compulsive behaviours (such as body dysmorphic disorder), but others have predominantly motoric or behavioural symptoms (such as trichotillomania). Sensory phenomena, including premonitory urges and ‘just right’ perceptions (where a patient continues their compulsions until there is a feeling that things are ‘just right’ and they can stop), can be present in some OCRDs, including OCD and Tourette syndrome.

Fig. 2 |. OCD symptom dimensions.

Studies using a factor-analytic approach have consistently supported a four-f actor or five-factor model of obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) symptoms, including a ‘contamination’ dimension (contamination or cleanliness obsessions and cleaning compulsions), a ‘harmful thoughts’ dimension (thoughts of harm to self and others and checking compulsions), a ‘forbidden thoughts’ dimension (aggressive, sexual, religious obsessions with mental rituals or praying), a ‘symmetry’ factor (symmetry obsessions, and repeating, ordering and counting compulsions), and a ‘hoarding’ factor (hoarding or saving obsessions and related compulsions),. Hoarding disorder is considered as a separate entity in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, although hoarding symptoms can also be found in patients with OCD in some cases.

Fig. 3 |. Comorbidities of OCD.

The prevalence of comorbid mental disorders in patients with obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) in the National Comorbidity Survey-Replication (NCS-R). ADHD, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.Data from REF..

Fig. 4 |. Circuits involved in OCD.

Obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) is mediated by parallel, partly segregated, cortico–striato–thalamo–cortical (CSTC) circuits that are involved in sensorimotor, cognitive, affective and motivational processes. dCaud, dorsal part of caudate nucleus; dlPFC, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex; dmPFC, dorsomedial prefrontal cortex; IFG, inferior frontal gyrus; NAcc, nucleus accumbens; OFC, orbitofrontal cortex; pPut, posterior part of putamen; pre-SMA, pre-supplementary motor area; SMA, supplementary motor area; Tham, Thalamus; vCaud, ventral part of caudate nucleus; vlPFC, ventrolateral prefrontal cortex; vmPFC, ventromedial prefrontal cortex. Adapted with permission from REF., Elsevier.

Fig. 5 |. Lifespan changes related to disease stage — brain changes as a cause and consequence of OCD.

The involvement of the circuits is hypothesized to depend on the symptom profile and the disease stage. In early phases of obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), alterations within the dorsal cognitive, ventral cognitive and ventral reward cortico–striato–thalamo–cortical (CSTC) circuits and the frontolimbic circuit are hypothesized to be related to symptoms involving anxiety, uncertainty, and goal-directed behaviours. In later phases of OCD, alterations within the sensorimotor, dorsal cognitive and ventral cognitive CSTC circuits are hypothesized to be related to symptoms involving habitual behaviours. dCaud, dorsal part of caudate nucleus; dlPFC, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex; dmPFC, dorsomedial prefrontal cortex; IFG, inferior frontal gyrus; NAcc, nucleus accumbens; OFC, orbitofrontal cortex; pPut, posterior part of putamen; pre-SMA, pre-supplementary motor area; SMA, supplementary motor area; Tham, Thalamus; vCaud, ventral part of caudate nucleus; vlPFC, ventrolateral prefrontal cortex; vmPFC, ventromedial prefrontal cortex. Adapted with permission from REF., Elsevier.

Fig. 6 |. OCD treatment algorithm.

Cognitive–behavioural therapy (CBT) or selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are the first-line treatments for obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD). Unresponsive patients can receive augmentation with other treatment modalities. Neurosurgery is only considered in highly refractory and severe cases. AAP, atypical antipsychotics; DBS, deep brain stimulation; rTMS, repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation; SNRI, serotonin-noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor ; SRI, serotonin reuptake inhibitor. aThe presence of specific comorbidities may change the algorithm (for example, focus on mood stabilizers plus CBT in the presence of bipolar disorder, and the addition of antipsychotics in those with psychotic symptoms or tics). bEffect sizes are similar for different SSRIs. cMonthly booster sessions for 3 to 6 months. d12–24 months.

Fig. 7 |. Targets for treatment.

Different treatment modalities, including neuromodulation, neurosurgery and pharmacological therapy, might target different neurocircuits that have been implicated in obsessive–compulsive disorder. CSTC, cortico–striato–thalamo–cortical; DBS, deep brain stimulation; ERP, exposure and response prevention; rTMS, repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation; SRI, serotonin reuptake inhibitor ; tDCS, transcranial direct current stimulation. Adapted with permission from REF., Elsevier.