Self-Reported Periodization of Nutrition in Elite Female and Male Runners and Race Walkers
Ida Aliisa Heikura, Trent Stellingwerff, Louise Mary Burke, Ida Aliisa Heikura, Trent Stellingwerff, Louise Mary Burke
Abstract
Athletes should achieve event-specific physiological requirements through careful periodization of training, underpinned by individualized and targeted nutrition strategies. However, evidence of whether, and how, elite endurance athletes periodize nutrition is scarce. Accordingly, elite international female (n = 67) and male (n = 37) middle/long-distance athletes (IAAF score: 1129 ± 54, corresponds to 13:22.49 [males] and 15:17.93 [females] in the 5000 m) completed an online survey (February-May 2018) examining self-reported practices of dietary periodization for micro (within/between-days), meso (weeks/months) and macro (across the year) contexts. Data are shown as the percentage of all athletes practicing a given strategy followed by the % of athletes reporting various beliefs or practices within this strategy. Differences according to sex, event (middle-distance [800 m/1500 m] vs. track-distance [3000 m-10000 m] vs. road-distance [marathon/race walks]), caliber (high [major championship qualifier] vs. lower), and training volume (low/moderate/high male and female tertiles) were analyzed using Chi-square test or Kruskal-Wallis Test and indicated statistically different when p ≤ 0.05. Most athletes reported eating more on hard training days (92%) and focusing on nutrition before (84%; carbohydrate intake [63%] and timing [58%]) and after (95%; protein goals [59%], timing [55%], carbohydrate goals [50%]) key sessions. Road-distance were the most (62 and 57%), and middle-distance the least (30 and 30%) likely to train fasted (p = 0.037) or restrict carbohydrates periodically (p = 0.050), respectively. Carbohydrate intake during training (58% of total) was more common in males (79%; p = 0.004) and road-distance (90%; p < 0.001) than females (53%) or middle/track-distance (48 and 37%). Most athletes (83%) reported following a specific diet before and during race day, with half of the athletes focusing on carbohydrates. Nearly all (97%) road-distance athletes reported following a during-race nutrition plan (carbohydrates/fluids:89%). Only 32% reported taking advice from a dietitian/nutritionist. Based on our analysis: (1) Road-distance athletes periodize carbohydrate availability while track/middle-distance avoid low carbohydrate availability; (2) Middle-distance runners emphasize physique goals to guide their nutrition strategies; (3) Females seem to be more cautious of increasing energy/carbohydrate intake; (4) Among all athletes, nutrition strategies are chosen primarily to improve performance, followed by reasons related to physique, adaptation and health outcomes. Overall, these athletes appear to possess good knowledge of nutrition for supporting training and competition performance.
Keywords: carbohydrate availability; elite athletes; endurance athletes; nutrition periodization; questionnaire.
Figures
References
- Anderson L., Naughton R. J., Close G. L., Di Michele R., Morgans R., Drust B., et al. (2017a). Daily distribution of macronutrient intakes of professional soccer players from the english premier league. Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. 27 491–498. 10.1123/ijsnem.2016-0265
- Anderson L., Orme P., Naughton R. J., Close G. L., Milsom J., Rydings D., et al. (2017b). Energy intake and expenditure of professional soccer players of the english premier league: evidence of carbohydrate periodization. Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. 27 228–238. 10.1123/ijsnem.2016-0259
- Areta J. L., Hopkins W. G. (2018). Skeletal muscle glycogen content at rest and during endurance exercise in humans: a meta-analysis. Sports Med. 48 2091–2102. 10.1007/s40279-018-0941-1
- Badenhorst C. E., Dawson B., Cox G. R., Laarakkers C. M., Swinkels D. W., Peeling P. (2015). Acute dietary carbohydrate manipulation and the subsequent inflammatory and hepcidin responses to exercise. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 115 2521–2530. 10.1007/s00421-015-3252-3
- Bartlett J. D., Hawley J. A., Morton J. P. (2015). Carbohydrate availability and exercise training adaptation: too much of a good thing? Eur. J. Sport Sci. 15 3–12. 10.1080/17461391.2014.920926
- Bradley W. J., Cavanagh B., Douglas W., Donovan T. F., Twist C., Morton J. P., et al. (2015). Energy intake and expenditure assessed ‘in-season’ in an elite european rugby union squad. Eur. J. Sport Sci. 15 469–479. 10.1080/17461391.2015.1042528
- Burke L. M., Cox G. R., Culmmings N. K., Desbrow B. (2001). Guidelines for daily carbohydrate intake: do athletes achieve them? Sports Med. 31 267–299. 10.2165/00007256-200131040-00003
- Burke L. M., Hawley J. A., Jeukendrup A., Morton J. P., Stellingwerff T., Maughan R. J. (2018). Toward a common understanding of diet-exercise strategies to manipulate fuel availability for training and competition preparation in endurance sport. Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. 28 451–463. 10.1123/ijsnem.2018-0289
- Burke L. M., Ross M. L., Garvican-Lewis L. A., Welvaert M., Heikura I. A., Forbes S. G., et al. (2017). Low carbohydrate, high fat diet impairs exercise economy and negates the performance benefit from intensified training in elite race walkers. J. Physiol. 595 2785–2807. 10.1113/JP273230
- Burke L. M., Slater G., Broad E. M., Haukka J., Modulon S., Hopkins W. G. (2003). Eating patterns and meal frequency of elite australian athletes. Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. 13 521–538. 10.1123/ijsnem.13.4.521
- Cox G. R., Clark S. A., Cox A. J., Halson S. L., Hargreaves M., Hawley J. A., et al. (2010). Daily training with high carbohydrate availability increases exogenous carbohydrate oxidation during endurance cycling. J. Appl. Physiol. 109 126–134. 10.1152/japplphysiol.00950.2009
- Coyle E. F. (1991). Timing and method of increased carbohydrate intake to cope with heavy training, competition and recovery. J. Sports Sci. 9 29–51; discussion 51–2. 10.1080/02640419108729865
- Deutz R. C., Benardot D., Martin D. E., Cody M. M. (2000). Relationship between energy deficits and body composition in elite female gymnasts and runners. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 32 659–668. 10.1097/00005768-200003000-00017
- Fahrenholtz I. L., Sjodin A., Benardot D., Tornberg A. B., Skouby S., Faber J., et al. (2018). Within-day energy deficiency and reproductive function in female endurance athletes. Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports 28 1139–1146. 10.1111/sms.13030
- Gejl K. D., Thams L. B., Hansen M., Rokkedal-Lausch T., Plomgaard P., Nybo L., et al. (2017). No superior adaptations to carbohydrate periodization in elite endurance athletes. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 49 2486–2497. 10.1249/MSS.0000000000001377
- Hawley J. A., Myburgh K. H., Noakes T. D., Dennis S. C. (1997). Training techniques to improve fatigue resistance and enhance endurance performance. J. Sports Sci. 15 325–333. 10.1080/026404197367335
- Hearris M. A., Hammond K. M., Fell J. M., Morton J. P. (2018). Regulation of muscle glycogen metabolism during exercise: implications for endurance performance and training adaptations. Nutrients 10:E298. 10.3390/nu10030298
- Hector A. J., Phillips S. M. (2018). Protein recommendations for weight loss in elite athletes: a focus on body composition and performance. Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. 28 170–177. 10.1123/ijsnem.2017-0273
- Heikura I. A., Burke L. M., Mero A. A., Uusitalo A. L. T., Stellingwerff T. (2017a). Dietary microperiodization in elite female and male runners and race walkers during a block of high intensity precompetition training. Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. 27 297–304. 10.1123/ijsnem.2016-0317
- Heikura I. A., Stellingwerff T., Mero A. A., Uusitalo A. L. T., Burke L. M. (2017b). A mismatch between athlete practice and current sports nutrition guidelines among elite female and male middle- and long-distance athletes. Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. 27 351–360. 10.1123/ijsnem.2016-0316
- Hulston C., Venables M., Mann C., Martin C., Philp A., Baar K., et al. (2010). Training with low muscle glycogen enhances fat metabolism in well-trained cyclists. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 42 2046–2055. 10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181dd5070
- Impey S. G., Hearris M. A., Hammond K. M., Bartlett J. D., Louis J., Close G. L., et al. (2018). Fuel for the work required: a theoretical framework for carbohydrate periodization and the glycogen threshold hypothesis. Sports Med. 48 1031–1048. 10.1007/s40279-018-0867-7
- Jeukendrup A. (2014). A step towards personalized sports nutrition: carbohydrate intake during exercise. Sports Med. 44(Suppl. 1), S25–S33. 10.1007/s40279-014-0148-z
- Jeukendrup A. E. (2017). Periodized nutrition for athletes. Sports Med. 47(Suppl. 1), 51–63. 10.1007/s40279-017-0694-2
- Marquet L. A., Brisswalter J., Louis J., Tiollier E., Burke L. M., Hawley J. A., et al. (2016a). Enhanced endurance performance by periodization of carbohydrate intake: sleep low Strategy. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 48 663–672. 10.1249/MSS.0000000000000823
- Marquet L. A., Hausswirth C., Molle O., Hawley J. A., Burke L. M., Tiollier E., et al. (2016b). Periodization of carbohydrate intake: short-term effect on performance. Nutrients 8:E755. 10.3390/nu8120755
- Martinsen M., Bratland-Sanda S., Eriksson A. K., Sundgot-Borgen J. (2010). Dieting to win or to be thin? A study of dieting and disordered eating among adolescent elite athletes and non-athlete controls. Br. J. Sports Med. 44 70–76. 10.1136/bjsm.2009.068668
- Melin A. K., Heikura I. A., Tenforde A. S., Mountjoy M. (2018). Energy availability in athletics: health, performance and physique. Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. (in press).
- Mountjoy M., Sundgot-Borgen J. K., Burke L. M., Ackerman K. E., Blauwet C., Constantini N., et al. (2018). IOC consensus statement on relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S): 2018 update. Br. J. Sports Med. 52 687–697. 10.1136/bjsports-2018-099193
- Mujika I., Halson S., Burke L. M., Balague G., Farrow D. (2018). An integrated, multifactorial approach to periodization for optimal performance in individual and team sports. Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform. 13 538–561. 10.1123/ijspp.2018-0093
- Naughton R. J., Drust B., O’Boyle A., Morgans R., Abayomi J., Davies I. G., et al. (2016). Daily distribution of carbohydrate, protein and fat intake in elite youth academy soccer players over a 7-day training period. Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. 26 473–480. 10.1123/ijsnem.2015-0340
- Phillips S. M., Van Loon L. J. (2011). Dietary protein for athletes: from requirements to optimum adaptation. J. Sports Sci. 29(Suppl. 1), S29–S38. 10.1080/02640414.2011.619204
- Philp A., Burke L. M., Baar K. (2011). Altering endogenous carbohydrate availability to support training adaptations. Nestle Nutr. Inst. Workshop Ser. 69 19–31; discussion 31–7. 10.1159/000329279
- Sale C., Varley I., Jones T. W., James R. M., Tang J. C., Fraser W. D., et al. (2015). Effect of carbohydrate feeding on the bone metabolic response to running. J. Appl. Physiol. 119 824–830. 10.1152/japplphysiol.00241.2015
- Stellingwerff T. (2012). Case study: nutrition and training periodization in three elite marathon runners. Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. 22 392–400. 10.1123/ijsnem.22.5.392
- Stellingwerff T. (2018). Case study: body composition periodization in an olympic-level female middle-distance runner over a 9-year career. Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. 28 428–433. 10.1123/ijsnem.2017-0312
- Stellingwerff T., Boit M. K., Res P. T. (2007). Nutritional strategies to optimize training and racing in middle-distance athletes. J. Sports Sci. 25(Suppl. 1), S17–S28. 10.1080/02640410701607213
- Stellingwerff T., Cox G. R. (2014). Systematic review: carbohydrate supplementation on exercise performance or capacity of varying durations. Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. 39 998–1011. 10.1139/apnm-2014-0027
- Stellingwerff T., Morton J. P., Burke L. M. (2018). A framework for periodized nutrition for athletics. Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. (in press).
- Sundgot-Borgen J., Torstveit M. K. (2004). Prevalence of eating disorders in elite athletes is higher than in the general population. Clin. J. Sport Med. 14 25–32. 10.1097/00042752-200401000-00005
- Tarnopolsky M. A., Zawada C., Richmond L. B., Carter S., Shearer J., Graham T., et al. (2001). Gender differences in carbohydrate loading are related to energy intake. J. Appl. Physiol. 91 225–230. 10.1152/jappl.2001.91.1.225
- Thomas D. T., Erdman K. A., Burke L. M. (2016). Position of the academy of nutrition and dietetics, dietitians of canada, and the american college of sports medicine: nutrition and athletic performance. J Acad. Nutr. Diet. 116 501–528. 10.1016/j.jand.2015.12.006
- Torstveit M. K., Fahrenholtz I., Stenqvist T. B., Sylta O., Melin A. (2018). Within-day energy deficiency and metabolic perturbation in male endurance athletes. Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. 28 419–427. 10.1123/ijsnem.2017-0337
- Wallis G. A., Dawson R., Achten J., Webber J., Jeukendrup A. E. (2006). Metabolic response to carbohydrate ingestion during exercise in males and females. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 290 E708–E715. 10.1152/ajpendo.00357.2005
- Yeo W. K., Paton C. D., Garnham A. P., Burke L. M., Carey A. L., Hawley J. A. (2008). Skeletal muscle adaptation and performance responses to once a day versus twice every second day endurance training regimens. J. Appl. Physiol. 105 1462–1470. 10.1152/japplphysiol.90882.2008
Source: PubMed