Intracranial pressure monitoring: Gold standard and recent innovations

Deb Sanjay Nag, Seelora Sahu, Amlan Swain, Shashi Kant, Deb Sanjay Nag, Seelora Sahu, Amlan Swain, Shashi Kant

Abstract

Intracranial pressure monitoring (ICP) is based on the doctrine proposed by Monroe and Kellie centuries ago. With the advancement of technology and science, various invasive and non-invasive modalities of monitoring ICP continue to be developed. An ideal monitor to track ICP should be easy to use, accurate, reliable, reproducible, inexpensive and should not be associated with infection or haemorrhagic complications. Although the transducers connected to the extra ventricular drainage continue to be Gold Standard, its association with the likelihood of infection and haemorrhage have led to the search for alternate non-invasive methods of monitoring ICP. While Camino transducers, Strain gauge micro transducer based ICP monitoring devices and the Spiegelberg ICP monitor are the emerging technology in invasive ICP monitoring, optic nerve sheath diameter measurement, venous opthalmodynamometry, tympanic membrane displacement, tissue resonance analysis, tonometry, acoustoelasticity, distortion-product oto-acoustic emissions, trans cranial doppler, electro encephalogram, near infra-red spectroscopy, pupillometry, anterior fontanelle pressure monitoring, skull elasticity, jugular bulb monitoring, visual evoked response and radiological based assessment of ICP are the non-invasive methods which are assessed against the gold standard.

Keywords: Craniocerebral trauma; Intracranial pressure increase; Subarachnoid hemorrhages.

Conflict of interest statement

Conflict-of-interest statement: None conflict-of-interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
The relationship between intracranial pressure and volume. ICP: Intracranial pressure.
Figure 2
Figure 2
Normal intracranial pressure trace showing the vascular and respiratory pulse. ICP: Intracranial pressure.
Figure 3
Figure 3
Normal intracranial pressure waveform showing the P1 (Percussion wave), P2 (Tidal wave) and P3 (Dicrotic notch). ICP: Intracranial pressure.
Figure 4
Figure 4
Schematic diagram of the changes in intracranial pressure waveform in intracranial hypertension. ICP: Intracranial pressure.
Figure 5
Figure 5
Schematic presentation of Lundberg A waves and Lundberg B waves. ICP: Intracranial pressure.
Figure 6
Figure 6
Ultrasound image of optic nerve sheath diameter. The distance “A” is depth from posterior pole of eye (3 mm) and the distance “B” is the optic nerve sheath diameter.

References

    1. Monro A. Observations on the structure and function of the nervous system. Edinburgh: Creech and Johnson, 1783
    1. Kellie G. An account of the appearances observed in the dissection of two of the three individuals presumed to have perished in the storm of the 3rd, and whose bodies were discovered in the vicinity of Leith on the morning of the 4th November 1821 with some reflections on the pathology of the brain. Transac Medico Chirurg Soc Edinburgh 1824; 1: 84–169
    1. Cushing H. The third circulation in studies in intracranial physiology and surgery. London: Oxford University Press; 1926. pp. 1–51.
    1. Guillaume J, Janny P. [Continuous intracranial manometry; importance of the method and first results] Rev Neurol (Paris) 1951;84:131–142.
    1. Lundberg N. Continuous recording and control of ventricular fluid pressure in neurosurgical practice. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl. 1960;36:1–193.
    1. The Brain Trauma Foundation. The American Association of Neurological Surgeons. The Joint Section on Neurotrauma and Critical Care. Indications for intracranial pressure monitoring. J Neurotrauma. 2000;17:479–491.
    1. The Brain Trauma Foundation. The American Association of Neurological Surgeons. The Joint Section on Neurotrauma and Critical Care. Intracranial pressure treatment threshold. J Neurotrauma. 2000;17:493–495.
    1. The Brain Trauma Foundation. The American Association of Neurological Surgeons. The Joint Section on Neurotrauma and Critical Care. Recommendations for intracranial pressure monitoring technology. J Neurotrauma. 2000;17:497–506.
    1. Carney N, Totten AM, O'Reilly C, Ullman JS, Hawryluk GW, Bell MJ, Bratton SL, Chesnut R, Harris OA, Kissoon N, Rubiano AM, Shutter L, Tasker RC, Vavilala MS, Wilberger J, Wright DW, Ghajar J. Guidelines for the Management of Severe Traumatic Brain Injury, Fourth Edition. Neurosurgery. 2017;80:6–15.
    1. Gjerris F, Brennum J. The cerebrospinal fluid, intracranial pressure and herniation of the brain. In: Paulson OB, Gjerris F, Sørensen PS, editors. Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery. Copenhagen: FADL’s Forlag Aktieselskab; 2004. p. 179–196.
    1. Hamer J, Alberti E, Hoyer S, Wiedemann K. Influence of systemic and cerebral vascular factors on the cerebrospinal fluid pulse waves. J Neurosurg. 1977;46:36–45.
    1. Lundberg N, Troupp H, Lorin H. Continuous recording of the ventricular-fluid pressure in patients with severe acute traumatic brain injury. A preliminary report. J Neurosurg. 1965;22:581–590.
    1. Newell DW, Aaslid R, Stooss R, Reulen HJ. The relationship of blood flow velocity fluctuations to intracranial pressure B waves. J Neurosurg. 1992;76:415–421.
    1. Kjällquist A, Lundberg N, Pontén U. Respiratory and cardiovascular changes during rapid spontaneous variations of ventricular fluid pressure in patients with intracranial hypertension. Acta Neurol Scand. 1964;40:291–317.
    1. Graham DI, Ford I, Adams JH, Doyle D, Teasdale GM, Lawrence AE, McLellan DR. Ischaemic brain damage is still common in fatal non-missile head injury. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1989;52:346–350.
    1. Rosner MJ, Rosner SD, Johnson AH. Cerebral perfusion pressure: management protocol and clinical results. J Neurosurg. 1995;83:949–962.
    1. Robertson CS, Valadka AB, Hannay HJ, Contant CF, Gopinath SP, Cormio M, Uzura M, Grossman RG. Prevention of secondary ischemic insults after severe head injury. Crit Care Med. 1999;27:2086–2095.
    1. Young JS, Blow O, Turrentine F, Claridge JA, Schulman A. Is there an upper limit of intracranial pressure in patients with severe head injury if cerebral perfusion pressure is maintained? Neurosurg Focus. 2003;15:E2.
    1. Juul N, Morris GF, Marshall SB, Marshall LF. Intracranial hypertension and cerebral perfusion pressure: influence on neurological deterioration and outcome in severe head injury. The Executive Committee of the International Selfotel Trial. J Neurosurg. 2000;92:1–6.
    1. Smith M. Monitoring intracranial pressure in traumatic brain injury. Anesth Analg. 2008;106:240–248.
    1. Singhi SC, Tiwari L. Management of intracranial hypertension. Indian J Pediatr. 2009;76:519–529.
    1. Bershad EM, Humphreis WE, 3rd, Suarez JI. Intracranial hypertension. Semin Neurol. 2008;28:690–702.
    1. Forsyth RJ, Wolny S, Rodrigues B. Routine intracranial pressure monitoring in acute coma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010:CD002043.
    1. Cooper DJ, Rosenfeld JV, Murray L, Arabi YM, Davies AR, D'Urso P, Kossmann T, Ponsford J, Seppelt I, Reilly P, Wolfe R DECRA Trial Investigators; Australian and New Zealand Intensive Care Society Clinical Trials Group. Decompressive craniectomy in diffuse traumatic brain injury. N Engl J Med. 2011;364:1493–1502.
    1. Bulger EM, Nathens AB, Rivara FP, Moore M, MacKenzie EJ, Jurkovich GJ Brain Trauma Foundation. Management of severe head injury: institutional variations in care and effect on outcome. Crit Care Med. 2002;30:1870–1876.
    1. Stein SC, Georgoff P, Meghan S, Mirza KL, El Falaky OM. Relationship of aggressive monitoring and treatment to improved outcomes in severe traumatic brain injury. J Neurosurg. 2010;112:1105–1112.
    1. Gerber LM, Chiu YL, Carney N, Härtl R, Ghajar J. Marked reduction in mortality in patients with severe traumatic brain injury. J Neurosurg. 2013;119:1583–1590.
    1. Mindermann T, Gratzl O. Interhemispheric pressure gradients in severe head trauma in humans. Acta Neurochir Suppl. 1998;71:56–58.
    1. Mindermann T, Reinhardt H, Gratzl O. Significant lateralisation of supratentorial ICP after blunt head trauma. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 1992;116:60–61.
    1. Marshall LF, Zovickian J, Ostrup R, Seelig JM. Multiple simultaneous recordings of ICP in patients with acute mass lesions. In Intracranial Pressure VI. New York: Springer; 1986. p. 184–186.
    1. Sahuquillo J, Poca MA, Arribas M, Garnacho A, Rubio E. Interhemispheric supratentorial intracranial pressure gradients in head-injured patients: are they clinically important? J Neurosurg. 1999;90:16–26.
    1. Brain Trauma Foundation; American Association of Neurological Surgeons; Congress of Neurological Surgeons; Joint Section on Neurotrauma and Critical Care; AANS/CNS. Bratton SL, Chestnut RM, Ghajar J, McConnell Hammond FF, Harris OA, Hartl R, Manley GT, Nemecek A, Newell DW, Rosenthal G, Schouten J, Shutter L, Timmons SD, Ullman JS, Videtta W, Wilberger JE, Wright DW. Guidelines for the management of severe traumatic brain injury. VII. Intracranial pressure monitoring technology. J Neurotrauma. 2007;24 Suppl 1:S45–S54.
    1. Cremer OL. Does ICP monitoring make a difference in neurocritical care? Eur J Anaesthesiol Suppl. 2008;42:87–93.
    1. Bhatia A, Gupta AK. Neuromonitoring in the intensive care unit. I. Intracranial pressure and cerebral blood flow monitoring. Intensive Care Med. 2007;33:1263–1271.
    1. Zhong J, Dujovny M, Park HK, Perez E, Perlin AR, Diaz FG. Advances in ICP monitoring techniques. Neurol Res. 2003;25:339–350.
    1. March K. Intracranial pressure monitoring: why monitor? AACN Clin Issues. 2005;16:456–475.
    1. Steiner LA, Andrews PJ. Monitoring the injured brain: ICP and CBF. Br J Anaesth. 2006;97:26–38.
    1. Kim BS, Jallo J. Intracranial Pressure Monitoring and Management of Raised Intracranial Pressure. In: Loftus CM, editor. Neurosurgical Emergencies, 2nd Ed. New York: Thieme; 2008. pp. 11–22.
    1. Adams HP, Jr, del Zoppo G, Alberts MJ, Bhatt DL, Brass L, Furlan A, Grubb RL, Higashida RT, Jauch EC, Kidwell C, Lyden PD, Morgenstern LB, Qureshi AI, Rosenwasser RH, Scott PA, Wijdicks EF American Heart Association; American Stroke Association Stroke Council; Clinical Cardiology Council; Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention Council; Atherosclerotic Peripheral Vascular Disease and Quality of Care Outcomes in Research Interdisciplinary Working Groups. Guidelines for the early management of adults with ischemic stroke: a guideline from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Stroke Council, Clinical Cardiology Council, Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention Council, and the Atherosclerotic Peripheral Vascular Disease and Quality of Care Outcomes in Research Interdisciplinary Working Groups: the American Academy of Neurology affirms the value of this guideline as an educational tool for neurologists. Stroke. 2007;38:1655–1711.
    1. Bloch J, Regli L. Brain stem and cerebellar dysfunction after lumbar spinal fluid drainage: case report. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2003;74:992–994.
    1. Greenberg MS. Handbook of Neurosurgery. 8th Ed. New York: Thieme; 2016. pp. 1504–1519.
    1. Raboel PH, Bartek J, Jr, Andresen M, Bellander BM, Romner B. Intracranial Pressure Monitoring: Invasive versus Non-Invasive Methods-A Review. Crit Care Res Pract. 2012;2012:950393.
    1. Brain Trauma Foundation ; American Association of Neurological Surgeons; Congress of Neurological Surgeons; Joint Section on Neurotrauma and Critical Care, AANS/CNS, Bratton SL, Chestnut RM, Ghajar J, McConnell Hammond FF, Harris OA, Hartl R, Manley GT, Nemecek A, Newell DW, Rosenthal G, Schouten J, Shutter L, Timmons SD, Ullman JS, Videtta W, Wilberger JE, Wright DW. Guidelines for the management of severe traumatic brain injury. IV. Infection prophylaxis. J Neurotrauma. 2007;24 Suppl 1:S26–S31.
    1. Saladino A, White JB, Wijdicks EF, Lanzino G. Malplacement of ventricular catheters by neurosurgeons: a single institution experience. Neurocrit Care. 2009;10:248–252.
    1. Hoefnagel D, Dammers R, Ter Laak-Poort MP, Avezaat CJ. Risk factors for infections related to external ventricular drainage. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2008;150:209–14; discussion 214.
    1. Dasic D, Hanna SJ, Bojanic S, Kerr RS. External ventricular drain infection: the effect of a strict protocol on infection rates and a review of the literature. Br J Neurosurg. 2006;20:296–300.
    1. Binz DD, Toussaint LG, 3rd, Friedman JA. Hemorrhagic complications of ventriculostomy placement: a meta-analysis. Neurocrit Care. 2009;10:253–256.
    1. Gardner PA, Engh J, Atteberry D, Moossy JJ. Hemorrhage rates after external ventricular drain placement. J Neurosurg. 2009;110:1021–1025.
    1. Beer R, Lackner P, Pfausler B, Schmutzhard E. Nosocomial ventriculitis and meningitis in neurocritical care patients. J Neurol. 2008;255:1617–1624.
    1. Lozier AP, Sciacca RR, Romagnoli MF, Connolly ES., Jr Ventriculostomy-related infections: a critical review of the literature. Neurosurgery. 2002;51:170–81; discussion 181-2.
    1. Fichtner J, Güresir E, Seifert V, Raabe A. Efficacy of silver-bearing external ventricular drainage catheters: a retrospective analysis. J Neurosurg. 2010;112:840–846.
    1. Abla AA, Zabramski JM, Jahnke HK, Fusco D, Nakaji P. Comparison of two antibiotic-impregnated ventricular catheters: a prospective sequential series trial. Neurosurgery. 2011;68:437–42; discussion 442.
    1. Harrop JS, Sharan AD, Ratliff J, Prasad S, Jabbour P, Evans JJ, Veznedaroglu E, Andrews DW, Maltenfort M, Liebman K, Flomenberg P, Sell B, Baranoski AS, Fonshell C, Reiter D, Rosenwasser RH. Impact of a standardized protocol and antibiotic-impregnated catheters on ventriculostomy infection rates in cerebrovascular patients. Neurosurgery. 2010;67:187–91; discussion 191.
    1. Furno F, Morley KS, Wong B, Sharp BL, Arnold PL, Howdle SM, Bayston R, Brown PD, Winship PD, Reid HJ. Silver nanoparticles and polymeric medical devices: a new approach to prevention of infection? J Antimicrob Chemother. 2004;54:1019–1024.
    1. Abraham M, Singhal V. Intracranial pressure monitoring. J Neuroanaesthesiol Crit Care. 2015;2:193–203.
    1. Piper I, Barnes A, Smith D, Dunn L. The Camino intracranial pressure sensor: is it optimal technology? An internal audit with a review of current intracranial pressure monitoring technologies. Neurosurgery. 2001;49:1158–64; discussion 1164-5.
    1. Bekar A, Doğan S, Abaş F, Caner B, Korfali G, Kocaeli H, Yilmazlar S, Korfali E. Risk factors and complications of intracranial pressure monitoring with a fiberoptic device. J Clin Neurosci. 2009;16:236–240.
    1. Artru F, Terrier A, Gibert I, Messaoudi K, Charlot M, Naous H, Jourdan C. [Monitoring of intracranial pressure with intraparenchymal fiberoptic transducer. Technical aspects and clinical reliability] Ann Fr Anesth Reanim. 1992;11:424–429.
    1. Gelabert-González M, Ginesta-Galan V, Sernamito-García R, Allut AG, Bandin-Diéguez J, Rumbo RM. The Camino intracranial pressure device in clinical practice. Assessment in a 1000 cases. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2006;148:435–441.
    1. Hong WC, Tu YK, Chen YS, Lien LM, Huang SJ. Subdural intracranial pressure monitoring in severe head injury: clinical experience with the Codman MicroSensor. Surg Neurol. 2006;66 Suppl 2:S8–S13.
    1. Koskinen LO, Olivecrona M. Clinical experience with the intraparenchymal intracranial pressure monitoring Codman MicroSensor system. Neurosurgery. 2005;56:693–8; discussion 693-8.
    1. Fernandes HM, Bingham K, Chambers IR, Mendelow AD. Clinical evaluation of the Codman microsensor intracranial pressure monitoring system. Acta Neurochir Suppl. 1998;71:44–46.
    1. Citerio G, Piper I, Chambers IR, Galli D, Enblad P, Kiening K, Ragauskas A, Sahuquillo J, Gregson B BrainIT group. Multicenter clinical assessment of the raumedic Neurovent-P intracranial pressure sensor: a report by the BrainIT group,”. Neurosurgery. 2008;63:1152–1158.
    1. Lescot T, Reina V, Le Manach Y, Boroli F, Chauvet D, Boch AL, Puybasset L. In vivo accuracy of two intraparenchymal intracranial pressure monitors. Intensive Care Med. 2011;37:875–879.
    1. Kawoos U, McCarron RM, Auker CR, Chavko M. Advances in Intracranial Pressure Monitoring and Its Significance in Managing Traumatic Brain Injury. Int J Mol Sci. 2015;16:28979–28997.
    1. Stendel R, Heidenreich J, Schilling A, Akhavan-Sigari R, Kurth R, Picht T, Pietilä T, Suess O, Kern C, Meisel J, Brock M. Clinical evaluation of a new intracranial pressure monitoring device. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2003;145:185–93; discussion 193.
    1. Al-Tamimi YZ, Helmy A, Bavetta S, Price SJ. Assessment of zero drift in the Codman intracranial pressure monitor: a study from 2 neurointensive care units. Neurosurgery. 2009;64:94–8; discussion 98-9.
    1. Citerio G, Piper I, Cormio M, Galli D, Cazzaniga S, Enblad P, Nilsson P, Contant C, Chambers I BrainIT Group. Bench test assessment of the new Raumedic Neurovent-P ICP sensor: a technical report by the BrainIT group. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2004;146:1221–1226.
    1. Lang JM, Beck J, Zimmermann M, Seifert V, Raabe A. Clinical evaluation of intraparenchymal Spiegelberg pressure sensor. Neurosurgery. 2003;52:1455–9; discussion 1459.
    1. Kiening KL, Schoening WN, Stover JF, Unterberg AW. Continuous monitoring of intracranial compliance after severe head injury: relation to data quality, intracranial pressure and brain tissue PO2. Br J Neurosurg. 2003;17:311–318.
    1. Kiening KL, Schoening W, Unterberg AW, Stover JF, Citerio G, Enblad P, Nilssons P Brain-IT Group. Assessment of the relationship between age and continuous intracranial compliance. Acta Neurochir Suppl. 2005;95:293–297.
    1. Hayreh SS. Pathogenesis of oedema of the optic disc (papilloedema). A preliminary report. Br J Ophthalmol. 1964;48:522–543.
    1. Killer HE, Laeng HR, Flammer J, Groscurth P. Architecture of arachnoid trabeculae, pillars, and septa in the subarachnoid space of the human optic nerve: anatomy and clinical considerations. Br J Ophthalmol. 2003;87:777–781.
    1. Geeraerts T, Duranteau J, Benhamou D. Ocular sonography in patients with raised intracranial pressure: The papilloedema revisited. Crit Care. 2008;12:150.
    1. Ballantyne SA, O'Neill G, Hamilton R, Hollman AS. Observer variation in the sonographic measurement of optic nerve sheath diameter in normal adults. Eur J Ultrasound. 2002;15:145–149.
    1. Kimberly HH, Shah S, Marill K, Noble V. Correlation of optic nerve sheath diameter with direct measurement of intracranial pressure. Acad Emerg Med. 2008;15:201–204.
    1. Krishnamoorthy V, Beckmann K, Mueller M, Sharma D, Vavilala MS. Perioperative estimation of the intracranial pressure using the optic nerve sheath diameter during liver transplantation. Liver Transpl. 2013;19:246–249.
    1. Kristiansson H, Nissborg E, Bartek J, Jr, Andresen M, Reinstrup P, Romner B. Measuring elevated intracranial pressure through noninvasive methods: a review of the literature. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol. 2013;25:372–385.
    1. Miller MT, Pasquale M, Kurek S, White J, Martin P, Bannon K, Wasser T, Li M. Initial head computed tomographic scan characteristics have a linear relationship with initial intracranial pressure after trauma. J Trauma. 2004;56:967–72; discussion 972-3.
    1. Plandsoen WC, de Jong DA, Maas AI, Stroink H, Avezaat CJ. Fontanelle pressure monitoring in infants with the Rotterdam Teletransducer: a reliable technique. Med Prog Technol. 1987;13:21–27.
    1. Rajajee V, Vanaman M, Fletcher JJ, Jacobs TL. Optic nerve ultrasound for the detection of raised intracranial pressure. Neurocrit Care. 2011;15:506–515.
    1. Raksin PB, Alperin N, Sivaramakrishnan A, Surapaneni S, Lichtor T. Noninvasive intracranial compliance and pressure based on dynamic magnetic resonance imaging of blood flow and cerebrospinal fluid flow: review of principles, implementation, and other noninvasive approaches. Neurosurg Focus. 2003;14:e4.
    1. Soldatos T, Chatzimichail K, Papathanasiou M, Gouliamos A. Optic nerve sonography: a new window for the non-invasive evaluation of intracranial pressure in brain injury. Emerg Med J. 2009;26:630–634.
    1. Soldatos T, Karakitsos D, Chatzimichail K, Papathanasiou M, Gouliamos A, Karabinis A. Optic nerve sonography in the diagnostic evaluation of adult brain injury. Crit Care. 2008;12:R67.
    1. Tayal VS, Neulander M, Norton HJ, Foster T, Saunders T, Blaivas M. Emergency department sonographic measurement of optic nerve sheath diameter to detect findings of increased intracranial pressure in adult head injury patients. Ann Emerg Med. 2007;49:508–514.
    1. Sahu S, Swain A. Optic nerve sheath diameter: A novel way to monitor the brain. J Neuroanaesthesiol Crit Care. 2017;4S1:13–18.
    1. Dubourg J, Javouhey E, Geeraerts T, Messerer M, Kassai B. Ultrasonography of optic nerve sheath diameter for detection of raised intracranial pressure: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Intensive Care Med. 2011;37:1059–1068.
    1. Golzan SM, Avolio A, Graham SL. Hemodynamic interactions in the eye: a review. Ophthalmologica. 2012;228:214–221.
    1. Firsching R, Schütze M, Motschmann M, Behrens-Baumann W. Venous opthalmodynamometry: a noninvasive method for assessment of intracranial pressure. J Neurosurg. 2000;93:33–36.
    1. Firsching R, Müller C, Pauli SU, Voellger B, Röhl FW, Behrens-Baumann W. Noninvasive assessment of intracranial pressure with venous ophthalmodynamometry. Clinical article. J Neurosurg. 2011;115:371–374.
    1. Marchbanks RJ. Measurement of tympanic membrane displacement arising from aural cardiovascular activity, swallowing, and intra-aural muscle reflex. Acta Otolaryngol. 1984;98:119–129.
    1. Reid A, Marchbanks RJ, Burge DM, Martin AM, Bateman DE, Pickard JD, Brightwell AP. The relationship between intracranial pressure and tympanic membrane displacement. Br J Audiol. 1990;24:123–129.
    1. Samuel M, Burge DM, Marchbanks RJ. Tympanic membrane displacement testing in regular assessment of intracranial pressure in eight children with shunted hydrocephalus. J Neurosurg. 1998;88:983–995.
    1. Stettin E, Paulat K, Schulz C, Kunz U, Mauer UM. Noninvasive intracranial pressure measurement using infrasonic emissions from the tympanic membrane. J Clin Monit Comput. 2011;25:203–210.
    1. Michaeli D, Rappaport ZH. Tissue resonance analysis; a novel method for noninvasive monitoring of intracranial pressure. Technical note. J Neurosurg. 2002;96:1132–1137.
    1. Lashutka MK, Chandra A, Murray HN, Phillips GS, Hiestand BC. The relationship of intraocular pressure to intracranial pressure. Ann Emerg Med. 2004;43:585–591.
    1. Sheeran P, Bland JM, Hall GM. Intraocular pressure changes and alterations in intracranial pressure. Lancet. 2000;355:899.
    1. Sajjadi SA, Harirchian MH, Sheikhbahaei N, Mohebbi MR, Malekmadani MH, Saberi H. The relation between intracranial and intraocular pressures: study of 50 patients. Ann Neurol. 2006;59:867–870.
    1. Czarnik T, Gawda R, Latka D, Kolodziej W, Sznajd-Weron K, Weron R. Noninvasive measurement of intracranial pressure: is it possible? J Trauma. 2007;62:207–211.
    1. Golan S, Kurtz S, Mezad-Koursh D, Waisbourd M, Kesler A, Halpern P. Poor correlation between intracranial pressure and intraocular pressure by hand-held tonometry. Clin Ophthalmol. 2013;7:1083–1087.
    1. Li Z, Yang Y, Lu Y, Liu D, Xu E, Jia J, Yang D, Zhang X, Yang H, Ma D, Wang N. Intraocular pressure vs intracranial pressure in disease conditions: a prospective cohort study (Beijing iCOP study) BMC Neurol. 2012;12:66.
    1. Chunyu T, Xiujun P, Li N, Qin L, Tian Z. The Correlation between Intracranial Pressure and Intraocular Pressure after Brain Surgery. Int J Ophthalmol Eye Res. 2014;2:54–58.
    1. Wu J, He W, Chen WM, Zhu L. Research on simulation and experiment of noninvasive intracranial pressure monitoring based on acoustoelasticity effects. Med Devices (Auckl) 2013;6:123–131.
    1. Deppe C, Kummer P, Gürkov R, Olzowy B. Influence of the individual DPOAE growth behavior on DPOAE level variations caused by conductive hearing loss and elevated intracranial pressure. Ear Hear. 2013;34:122–131.
    1. Voss SE, Adegoke MF, Horton NJ, Sheth KN, Rosand J, Shera CA. Posture systematically alters ear-canal reflectance and DPOAE properties. Hear Res. 2010;263:43–51.
    1. Bershad EM, Urfy MZ, Pechacek A, McGrath M, Calvillo E, Horton NJ, Voss SE. Intracranial pressure modulates distortion product otoacoustic emissions: a proof-of-principle study. Neurosurgery. 2014;75:445–54; discussion 454-5.
    1. Büki B, Avan P, Lemaire JJ, Dordain M, Chazal J, Ribári O. Otoacoustic emissions: a new tool for monitoring intracranial pressure changes through stapes displacements. Hear Res. 1996;94:125–139.
    1. Büki B, de Kleine E, Wit HP, Avan P. Detection of intracochlear and intracranial pressure changes with otoacoustic emissions: a gerbil model. Hear Res. 2002;167:180–191.
    1. Voss SE, Horton NJ, Tabucchi TH, Folowosele FO, Shera CA. Posture-induced changes in distortion-product otoacoustic emissions and the potential for noninvasive monitoring of changes in intracranial pressure. Neurocrit Care. 2006;4:251–257.
    1. Sakka L, Thalamy A, Giraudet F, Hassoun T, Avan P, Chazal J. Electrophysiological monitoring of cochlear function as a non-invasive method to assess intracranial pressure variations. Acta Neurochir Suppl. 2012;114:131–134.
    1. Klingelhöfer J, Conrad B, Benecke R, Sander D. Intracranial flow patterns at increasing intracranial pressure. Klin Wochenschr. 1987;65:542–545.
    1. Klingelhöfer J, Conrad B, Benecke R, Sander D, Markakis E. Evaluation of intracranial pressure from transcranial Doppler studies in cerebral disease. J Neurol. 1988;235:159–162.
    1. Bouzat P, Francony G, Declety P, Genty C, Kaddour A, Bessou P, Brun J, Jacquot C, Chabardes S, Bosson JL, Payen JF. Transcranial Doppler to screen on admission patients with mild to moderate traumatic brain injury. Neurosurgery. 2011;68:1603–9; discussion 1609-10.
    1. de Riva N, Budohoski KP, Smielewski P, Kasprowicz M, Zweifel C, Steiner LA, Reinhard M, Fábregas N, Pickard JD, Czosnyka M. Transcranial Doppler pulsatility index: what it is and what it isn't. Neurocrit Care. 2012;17:58–66.
    1. Behrens A, Lenfeldt N, Ambarki K, Malm J, Eklund A, Koskinen LO. Transcranial Doppler pulsatility index: not an accurate method to assess intracranial pressure. Neurosurgery. 2010;66:1050–1057.
    1. Bellner J, Romner B, Reinstrup P, Kristiansson KA, Ryding E, Brandt L. Transcranial Doppler sonography pulsatility index (PI) reflects intracranial pressure (ICP) Surg Neurol. 2004;62:45–51; discussion 51.
    1. Wakerley BR, Kusuma Y, Yeo LL, Liang S, Kumar K, Sharma AK, Sharma VK. Usefulness of transcranial Doppler-derived cerebral hemodynamic parameters in the noninvasive assessment of intracranial pressure. J Neuroimaging. 2015;25:111–116.
    1. Bouzat P, Oddo M, Payen JF. Transcranial Doppler after traumatic brain injury: is there a role? Curr Opin Crit Care. 2014;20:153–160.
    1. Figaji AA, Zwane E, Fieggen AG, Siesjo P, Peter JC. Transcranial Doppler pulsatility index is not a reliable indicator of intracranial pressure in children with severe traumatic brain injury. Surg Neurol. 2009;72:389–394.
    1. Lescot T, Naccache L, Bonnet MP, Abdennour L, Coriat P, Puybasset L. The relationship of intracranial pressure Lundberg waves to electroencephalograph fluctuations in patients with severe head trauma. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2005;147:125–9; discussion 129.
    1. Amantini A, Carrai R, Lori S, Peris A, Amadori A, Pinto F, Grippo A. Neurophysiological monitoring in adult and pediatric intensive care. Minerva Anestesiol. 2012;78:1067–1075.
    1. Amantini A, Fossi S, Grippo A, Innocenti P, Amadori A, Bucciardini L, Cossu C, Nardini C, Scarpelli S, Roma V, Pinto F. Continuous EEG-SEP monitoring in severe brain injury. Neurophysiol Clin. 2009;39:85–93.
    1. Chen H, Wang J, Mao S, Dong W, Yang H. A new method of intracranial pressure monitoring by EEG power spectrum analysis. Can J Neurol Sci. 2012;39:483–487.
    1. Ghosh A, Elwell C, Smith M. Review article: cerebral near-infrared spectroscopy in adults: a work in progress. Anesth Analg. 2012;115:1373–1383.
    1. Kirkpatrick PJ, Smielewski P, Czosnyka M, Menon DK, Pickard JD. Near-infrared spectroscopy use in patients with head injury. J Neurosurg. 1995;83:963–970.
    1. Wagner BP, Pfenninger J. Dynamic cerebral autoregulatory response to blood pressure rise measured by near-infrared spectroscopy and intracranial pressure. Crit Care Med. 2002;30:2014–2021.
    1. Marshall LF, Barba D, Toole BM, Bowers SA. The oval pupil: clinical significance and relationship to intracranial hypertension. J Neurosurg. 1983;58:566–568.
    1. Fountas KN, Kapsalaki EZ, Machinis TG, Boev AN, Robinson JS, Troup EC. Clinical implications of quantitative infrared pupillometry in neurosurgical patients. Neurocrit Care. 2006;5:55–60.
    1. Taylor WR, Chen JW, Meltzer H, Gennarelli TA, Kelbch C, Knowlton S, Richardson J, Lutch MJ, Farin A, Hults KN, Marshall LF. Quantitative pupillometry, a new technology: normative data and preliminary observations in patients with acute head injury. Technical note. J Neurosurg. 2003;98:205–213.
    1. Chen JW, Gombart ZJ, Rogers S, Gardiner SK, Cecil S, Bullock RM. Pupillary reactivity as an early indicator of increased intracranial pressure: The introduction of the Neurological Pupil index. Surg Neurol Int. 2011;2:82.
    1. Chen JW, Vakil-Gilani K, Williamson KL, Cecil S. Infrared pupillometry, the Neurological Pupil index and unilateral pupillary dilation after traumatic brain injury: implications for treatment paradigms. Springerplus. 2014;3:548.
    1. Bunegin L, Albin MS, Rauschhuber R, Marlin AE. Intracranial pressure measurement from the anterior fontanelle utilizing a pneumoelectronic switch. Neurosurgery. 1987;20:726–731.
    1. Horbar JD, Yeager S, Philip AG, Lucey JF. Effect of application force on noninvasive measurements of intracranial pressure. Pediatrics. 1980;66:455–457.
    1. Salmon JH, Hajjar W, Bada HS. The fontogram: a noninvasive intracranial pressure monitor. Pediatrics. 1977;60:721–725.
    1. Vidyasagar D, Raju TN. A simple noninvasive technique of measuring intracranial pressure in the newborn. Pediatrics. 1977;59 Suppl:957–961.
    1. De Jong DA, Maas AI, v d Voort E. Non-invasive intracranial pressure monitoring. A technique for reproducible fontanelle pressure measurements. Z Kinderchir. 1984;39:274–276.
    1. Wiegand C, Richards P. Measurement of intracranial pressure in children: a critical review of current methods. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2007;49:935–941.
    1. Pitlyk PJ, Piantanida TP, Ploeger DW. Noninvasive intracranial pressure monitoring. Neurosurgery. 1985;17:581–584.
    1. Yue LW. Deformation of skull bone as intracranial pressure changing. African J Biotechnol. 2009;8:745–750.
    1. Vilela GH, Cabella B, Mascarenhas S, Czosnyka M, Smielewski P, Dias C, Cardim DA, Mascarenhas YM, Wang CC, Andrade R, Tanaka K, Lopes LS, Colli BO. Validation of a New Minimally Invasive Intracranial Pressure Monitoring Method by Direct Comparison with an Invasive Technique. Acta Neurochir Suppl. 2016;122:97–100.
    1. York D, Legan M, Benner S, Watts C. Further studies with a noninvasive method of intracranial pressure estimation. Neurosurgery. 1984;14:456–461.
    1. Mizutani T, Manaka S, Tsutsumi H. Estimation of intracranial pressure using computed tomography scan findings in patients with severe head injury. Surg Neurol. 1990;33:178–184.
    1. Marshall LF, Marshall SB, Klauber MR. A new classification of head injury based on computerised tomography. J Nuerosurg. 1991;75:S14–20.
    1. Rosenberg JB, Shiloh AL, Savel RH, Eisen LA. Non-invasive methods of estimating intracranial pressure. Neurocrit Care. 2011;15:599–608.
    1. Alperin N, Mazda M, Lichtor T, Lee SH. From cerebrospinal fluid pulsation to noninvasive intracranial compliance and pressure measured by MRI flow studies. Curr Med Imaging Rev. 2006;2:117–129.
    1. Geeraerts T, Newcombe VF, Coles JP, Abate MG, Perkes IE, Hutchinson PJ, Outtrim JG, Chatfield DA, Menon DK. Use of T2-weighted magnetic resonance imaging of the optic nerve sheath to detect raised intracranial pressure. Crit Care. 2008;12:R114.
    1. Kimberly HH, Noble VE. Using MRI of the optic nerve sheath to detect elevated intracranial pressure. Crit Care. 2008;12:181.
    1. Le Roux P. Intracranial pressure after the BEST TRIP trial: a call for more monitoring. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2014;20:141–147.
    1. Chesnut RM, Temkin N, Carney N, Dikmen S, Rondina C, Videtta W, Petroni G, Lujan S, Pridgeon J, Barber J, Machamer J, Chaddock K, Celix JM, Cherner M, Hendrix T Global Neurotrauma Research Group. A trial of intracranial-pressure monitoring in traumatic brain injury. N Engl J Med. 2012;367:2471–2481.
    1. Hutchinson PJ, Kolias AG, Czosnyka M, Kirkpatrick PJ, Pickard JD, Menon DK. Intracranial pressure monitoring in severe traumatic brain injury. BMJ. 2013;346:f1000.
    1. Albuquerque FC. Intracranial pressure monitoring after blunt head injuries: conflicting opinions. World Neurosurg. 2013;79:598.
    1. Ghajar J, Carney N. Intracranial-pressure monitoring in traumatic brain injury. N Engl J Med. 2013;368:1749.
    1. Maas AI, Menon DK, Lingsma HF, Pineda JA, Sandel ME, Manley GT. Re-orientation of clinical research in traumatic brain injury: report of an international workshop on comparative effectiveness research. J Neurotrauma. 2012;29:32–46.
    1. Ospina-Tascón GA, Büchele GL, Vincent JL. Multicenter, randomized, controlled trials evaluating mortality in intensive care: doomed to fail? Crit Care Med. 2008;36:1311–1322.
    1. Menon DK, Coles JP, Gupta AK, Fryer TD, Smielewski P, Chatfield DA, Aigbirhio F, Skepper JN, Minhas PS, Hutchinson PJ, Carpenter TA, Clark JC, Pickard JD. Diffusion limited oxygen delivery following head injury. Crit Care Med. 2004;32:1384–1390.
    1. Schwarzmaier SM, Kim SW, Trabold R, Plesnila N. Temporal profile of thrombogenesis in the cerebral microcirculation after traumatic brain injury in mice. J Neurotrauma. 2010;27:121–130.
    1. Bergsneider M, Hovda DA, Shalmon E, Kelly DF, Vespa PM, Martin NA, Phelps ME, McArthur DL, Caron MJ, Kraus JF, Becker DP. Cerebral hyperglycolysis following severe traumatic brain injury in humans: a positron emission tomography study. J Neurosurg. 1997;86:241–251.
    1. Vespa P, Bergsneider M, Hattori N, Wu HM, Huang SC, Martin NA, Glenn TC, McArthur DL, Hovda DA. Metabolic crisis without brain ischemia is common after traumatic brain injury: a combined microdialysis and positron emission tomography study. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 2005;25:763–774.
    1. Glenn TC, Kelly DF, Boscardin WJ, McArthur DL, Vespa P, Oertel M, Hovda DA, Bergsneider M, Hillered L, Martin NA. Energy dysfunction as a predictor of outcome after moderate or severe head injury: indices of oxygen, glucose, and lactate metabolism. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 2003;23:1239–1250.
    1. Singh IN, Sullivan PG, Deng Y, Mbye LH, Hall ED. Time course of post-traumatic mitochondrial oxidative damage and dysfunction in a mouse model of focal traumatic brain injury: implications for neuroprotective therapy. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 2006;26:1407–1418.
    1. Castejón OJ, de Castejón HV. Structural patterns of injured mitochondria in human oedematous cerebral cortex. Brain Inj. 2004;18:1107–1126.
    1. Marmarou A, Signoretti S, Fatouros PP, Portella G, Aygok GA, Bullock MR. Predominance of cellular edema in traumatic brain swelling in patients with severe head injuries. J Neurosurg. 2006;104:720–730.
    1. Østergaard L, Jespersen SN, Mouridsen K, Mikkelsen IK, Jonsdottír KÝ, Tietze A, Blicher JU, Aamand R, Hjort N, Iversen NK, Cai C, Hougaard KD, Simonsen CZ, Von Weitzel-Mudersbach P, Modrau B, Nagenthiraja K, Riisgaard Ribe L, Hansen MB, Bekke SL, Dahlman MG, Puig J, Pedraza S, Serena J, Cho TH, Siemonsen S, Thomalla G, Fiehler J, Nighoghossian N, Andersen G. The role of the cerebral capillaries in acute ischemic stroke: the extended penumbra model. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 2013;33:635–648.
    1. Brain Trauma Foundation; American Association of Neurological Surgeons; Congress of Neurological Surgeons; Joint Section on Neurotrauma and Critical Care; AANS/CNS. Bratton SL, Chestnut RM, Ghajar J, McConnell Hammond FF, Harris OA, Hartl R, Manley GT, Nemecek A, Newell DW, Rosenthal G, Schouten J, Shutter L, Timmons SD, Ullman JS, Videtta W, Wilberger JE, Wright DW. Guidelines for the management of severe traumatic brain injury. VI. Indications for intracranial pressure monitoring. J Neurotrauma. 2007;24 Suppl 1:S37–S44.
    1. Brain Trauma Foundation; American Association of Neurological Surgeons; Congress of Neurological Surgeons. Guidelines for the management of severe traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma. 2007;24 Suppl 1:S1–106.
    1. Le Roux PD, Newell DW, Lam AM, Grady MS, Winn HR. Cerebral arteriovenous oxygen difference: a predictor of cerebral infarction and outcome in patients with severe head injury. J Neurosurg. 1997;87:1–8.
    1. Stiefel MF, Udoetuk JD, Spiotta AM, Gracias VH, Goldberg A, Maloney-Wilensky E, Bloom S, Le Roux PD. Conventional neurocritical care and cerebral oxygenation after traumatic brain injury. J Neurosurg. 2006;105:568–575.
    1. Vespa PM, O'Phelan K, McArthur D, Miller C, Eliseo M, Hirt D, Glenn T, Hovda DA. Pericontusional brain tissue exhibits persistent elevation of lactate/pyruvate ratio independent of cerebral perfusion pressure. Crit Care Med. 2007;35:1153–1160.
    1. Adamides AA, Rosenfeldt FL, Winter CD, Pratt NM, Tippett NJ, Lewis PM, Bailey MJ, Cooper DJ, Rosenfeld JV. Brain tissue lactate elevations predict episodes of intracranial hypertension in patients with traumatic brain injury. J Am Coll Surg. 2009;209:531–539.
    1. Belli A, Sen J, Petzold A, Russo S, Kitchen N, Smith M. Metabolic failure precedes intracranial pressure rises in traumatic brain injury: a microdialysis study. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2008;150:461–9; discussion 470.
    1. Le Roux P. Physiological monitoring of the severe traumatic brain injury patient in the intensive care unit. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 2013;13:331.
    1. Stocchetti N, Le Roux P, Vespa P, Oddo M, Citerio G, Andrews PJ, Stevens RD, Sharshar T, Taccone FS, Vincent JL. Clinical review: neuromonitoring - an update. Crit Care. 2013;17:201.
    1. Le Roux P, Lam A. Monitoring blood flow and metabolism. In: Ruskin KJ, Rosenbaum SH, Rampil IJ, editors. Fundamentals of neuroanesthesia: a physiologic approach to clinical practice. New York: Oxford University Press; 2013. p. 25–49.
    1. Le Roux P. Invasive neurological and multimodality monitoring in the neuro ICU. In: Layon AJ, Gabrielli A, Friedman WA, editors. Textbook of neurocritical care, 2nd ed. London: Springer; 2013. p. 127–145.
    1. Oddo M, Levine JM, Kumar M, Iglesias K, Frangos S, Maloney-Wilensky E, Le Roux PD. Anemia and brain oxygen after severe traumatic brain injury. Intensive Care Med. 2012;38:1497–1504.
    1. Oddo M, Levine JM, Mackenzie L, Frangos S, Feihl F, Kasner SE, Katsnelson M, Pukenas B, Macmurtrie E, Maloney-Wilensky E, Kofke WA, LeRoux PD. Brain hypoxia is associated with short-term outcome after severe traumatic brain injury independently of intracranial hypertension and low cerebral perfusion pressure. Neurosurgery. 2011;69:1037–45; discussion 1045.
    1. Maloney-Wilensky E, Gracias V, Itkin A, Hoffman K, Bloom S, Yang W, Christian S, LeRoux PD. Brain tissue oxygen and outcome after severe traumatic brain injury: a systematic review. Crit Care Med. 2009;37:2057–2063.
    1. Timofeev I, Carpenter KL, Nortje J, Al-Rawi PG, O'Connell MT, Czosnyka M, Smielewski P, Pickard JD, Menon DK, Kirkpatrick PJ, Gupta AK, Hutchinson PJ. Cerebral extracellular chemistry and outcome following traumatic brain injury: a microdialysis study of 223 patients. Brain. 2011;134:484–494.
    1. Figaji AA, Zwane E, Thompson C, Fieggen AG, Argent AC, Le Roux PD, Peter JC. Brain tissue oxygen tension monitoring in pediatric severe traumatic brain injury. Part 1: Relationship with outcome. Childs Nerv Syst. 2009;25:1325–1333.
    1. Rohlwink UK, Zwane E, Fieggen AG, Argent AC, le Roux PD, Figaji AA. The relationship between intracranial pressure and brain oxygenation in children with severe traumatic brain injury. Neurosurgery. 2012;70:1220–30; discussion 1231.

Source: PubMed

Sponsorer og samarbejdspartnere

Medicinske tilstande

Narkotikainterventioner

3
Abonner