Rehabilitation of gait after stroke: a review towards a top-down approach

Juan-Manuel Belda-Lois, Silvia Mena-del Horno, Ignacio Bermejo-Bosch, Juan C Moreno, José L Pons, Dario Farina, Marco Iosa, Marco Molinari, Federica Tamburella, Ander Ramos, Andrea Caria, Teodoro Solis-Escalante, Clemens Brunner, Massimiliano Rea, Juan-Manuel Belda-Lois, Silvia Mena-del Horno, Ignacio Bermejo-Bosch, Juan C Moreno, José L Pons, Dario Farina, Marco Iosa, Marco Molinari, Federica Tamburella, Ander Ramos, Andrea Caria, Teodoro Solis-Escalante, Clemens Brunner, Massimiliano Rea

Abstract

This document provides a review of the techniques and therapies used in gait rehabilitation after stroke. It also examines the possible benefits of including assistive robotic devices and brain-computer interfaces in this field, according to a top-down approach, in which rehabilitation is driven by neural plasticity.The methods reviewed comprise classical gait rehabilitation techniques (neurophysiological and motor learning approaches), functional electrical stimulation (FES), robotic devices, and brain-computer interfaces (BCI).From the analysis of these approaches, we can draw the following conclusions. Regarding classical rehabilitation techniques, there is insufficient evidence to state that a particular approach is more effective in promoting gait recovery than other. Combination of different rehabilitation strategies seems to be more effective than over-ground gait training alone. Robotic devices need further research to show their suitability for walking training and their effects on over-ground gait. The use of FES combined with different walking retraining strategies has shown to result in improvements in hemiplegic gait. Reports on non-invasive BCIs for stroke recovery are limited to the rehabilitation of upper limbs; however, some works suggest that there might be a common mechanism which influences upper and lower limb recovery simultaneously, independently of the limb chosen for the rehabilitation therapy. Functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) enables researchers to detect signals from specific regions of the cortex during performance of motor activities for the development of future BCIs. Future research would make possible to analyze the impact of rehabilitation on brain plasticity, in order to adapt treatment resources to meet the needs of each patient and to optimize the recovery process.

References

    1. Schmidt H, Werner C, Bernhardt R, Hesse S, Krüger J. Gait rehabilitation machines based on programmable footplates. Journal of neuroengineering and rehabilitation. 2007;4
    1. Kwakkel G, Kollen BJ, Wagenaar RC. Therapy Impact on Functional Recovery in Stroke Rehabilitation:: A critical review of the literature. Physiotherapy. 1999;85:377–391.
    1. Evers SM, Struijs JN, Ament AJ, van Genugten ML, Jager JC, van den Bos GA. International comparison of stroke cost studies. Stroke. 2004;35:1209–1215.
    1. Schaechter JD. Motor rehabilitation and brain plasticity after hemiparetic stroke. Progress in neurobiology. 2004;73:61–72.
    1. Flansbjer UB, Holmbäck AM, Downham D, Patten C, Lexell J. Reliability of gait performance tests in men and women with hemiparesis after stroke. Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine. 2005;37:75–82.
    1. Olney SJ, Richards C. Hemiparetic gait following stroke. Part I: Characteristics. Gait & Posture. 1996;4:136–148.
    1. Hermano K, Bruce V, Neville H. A working model of stroke recovery from rehabilitation robotics practitioners. Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation.
    1. Rossignol S, Dubuc R, Gossard JP. Dynamic sensorimotor interactions in locomotion. Physiological reviews. 2006;86:89.
    1. Verma R, Arya KN, Sharma P, Garg RK. Understanding gait control in post-stroke: Implications for management. Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies. 2010. pp. 1–8.
    1. Mayer M. Clinical neurokinesiology of spastic gait. Bratislavské lekárske listy. 2002;103:3–11.
    1. Lindquist AR, Prado CL, Barros RM, Mattioli R, da Costa PH, Salvini TF. Gait training combining partial body-weight support, a treadmill, and functional electrical stimulation: effects on poststroke gait. Physical Therapy. 2007;87:1144–1154.
    1. Dietz V. Interaction between central programs and afferent input in the control of posture and locomotion. Journal of biomechanics. 1996;29:841–844.
    1. Grillner S. The motor infrastructure: from ion channels to neuronal networks. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 2003;4:573–586.
    1. Field-Fote EC, Dietz V. Single joint perturbation during gait: Preserved compensatory response pattern in spinal cord injured subjects. Clinical neurophysiology. 2007;118:1607–1616.
    1. Yang JF, Gorassini M. Spinal and brain control of human walking: implications for retraining of walking. The Neuroscientist. 2006;12:379–389.
    1. Norton J. Changing our thinking about walking. The Journal of Physiology. 2010;588:4341.
    1. Reisman DS, Wityk R, Silver K, Bastian AJ. Locomotor adaptation on a split-belt treadmill can improve walking symmetry post-stroke. Brain. 2007;130:1861–1872.
    1. Yang JF, Lamont EV, Pang MY. Split-belt treadmill stepping in infants suggests autonomous pattern generators for the left and right leg in humans. The Journal of neuroscience. 2005;25:6869–6876.
    1. Ivanenko YP, Dominici N, Cappellini G, Lacquaniti F. Kinematics in newly walking toddlers does not depend upon postural stability. Journal of neurophysiology. 2005;94:754–763.
    1. Okamoto T, Okamoto K, Andrew PD. Electromyographic developmental changes in one individual from newborn stepping to mature walking. Gait & posture. 2003;17:18–27.
    1. Christensen LO, Andersen JB, Sinkjær T, Nielsen J. Transcranial magnetic stimulation and stretch reflexes in the tibialis anterior muscle during human walking. The Journal of physiology. 2001;531:545.
    1. Petersen NT, Butler JE, Marchand-Pauvert V, Fisher R, Ledebt A, Pyndt HS, Hansen NL, Nielsen JB. Suppression of EMG activity by transcranial magnetic stimulation in human subjects during walking. The Journal of Physiology. 2001;537:651–656.
    1. Gwin JT, Gramann K, Makeig S, Ferris DP. Electrocortical activity is coupled to gait cycle phase during treadmill walking. Neuroimage. 2010.
    1. Molinari M. Plasticity properties of CPG circuits in humans: impact on gait recovery. Brain Research Bulletin. 2009;78:22–25.
    1. Capaday C, Lavoie BA, Barbeau H, Schneider C, Bonnard M. Studies on the corticospinal control of human walking. I. Responses to focal transcranial magnetic stimulation of the motor cortex. Journal of neurophysiology. 1999;81:129.
    1. Schubert M, Curt A, Jensen L, Dietz V. Corticospinal input in human gait: modulation of magnetically evoked motor responses. Experimental brain research. 1997;115:234–246.
    1. Knutsson E, Richards C. Different types of disturbed motor control in gait of hemiparetic patients. Brain. 1979;102:405–430.
    1. Yang JF, Lam T, Pang MY, Lamont E, Musselman K, Seinen E. Infant stepping: a window to the behaviour of the human pattern generator for walking. Canadian journal of physiology and pharmacology. 2004;82:662–674.
    1. Heuninckx S, Wenderoth N, Debaere F, Peeters R, Swinnen SP. Neural basis of aging: the penetration of cognition into action control. The Journal of neuroscience. 2005;25:6787–6796.
    1. Wieser M, Haefeli J, Bütler L, Jäncke L, Riener R, Koeneke S. Temporal and spatial patterns of cortical activation during assisted lower limb movement. Experimental brain research. 2010;203:181–191.
    1. Hansen NL, Nielsen JB. The effect of transcranial magnetic stimulation and peripheral nerve stimulation on corticomuscular coherence in humans. The Journal of Physiology. 2004;561:295–306.
    1. Alexander LD, Black SE, Patterson KK, Gao F, Danells CJ, McIlroy WE. Association between gait asymmetry and brain lesion location in stroke patients. Stroke. 2009;40:537–544.
    1. Richards CL, Olney SJ. Hemiparetic gait following stroke. Part II: Recovery and physical therapy. Gait & Posture. 1996;4:149–162.
    1. Ditunno PL, Patrick M, Stineman M, Morganti B, Townson AF, Ditunno JF. Cross-cultural differences in preference for recovery of mobility among spinal cord injury rehabilitation professionals. Spinal cord. 2005;44:567–575.
    1. Jette DU, Latham NK, Smout RJ, Gassaway J, Slavin MD, Horn SD. Physical therapy interventions for patients with stroke in inpatient rehabilitation facilities. Physical therapy. 2005;85:238–248.
    1. Langhorne P, Bernhardt J, Kwakkel G. Stroke rehabilitation. The Lancet. 2011;377:1693–1702.
    1. McDowd JM, Filion DL, Pohl PS, Richards LG, Stiers W. Attentional abilities and functional outcomes following stroke. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences. 2003;58:P45.
    1. Bastian AJ. Understanding sensorimotor adaptation and learning for rehabilitation. Current opinion in neurology. 2008;21:628.
    1. Martin TA, Keating JG, Goodkin HP, Bastian AJ, Thach WT. Throwing while looking through prisms. II. Specificity and storage of multiple gaze-throw calibrations. Brain. 1996;119:1199–1212.
    1. Kopp B, Wolff M. Brain mechanisms of selective learning: Event-related potentials provide evidence for error-driven learning in humans. Biological Psychology. 2000;51:223–246.
    1. Scheidt RA, Stoeckmann T. Reach adaptation and final position control amid environmental uncertainty after stroke. Journal of neurophysiology. 2007;97:2824.
    1. Pollock A, Baer G, Pomeroy VM, Langhorne P. Physiotherapy treatment approaches for the recovery of postural con-trol and lower limb function following stroke. status and date: Edited (no change to conclusions), published in. 2007;21:395–410.
    1. Lennon S. The Bobath concept: a critical review of the theoretical assumptions that guide physiotherapy practice in stroke rehabilitation. Physical therapy reviews. 1996;1:35–45.
    1. Bobath B, Bobath K. Control of motor function in the treatment of cerebral palsy. 1957. pp. 295–303.
    1. Paci M. Physiotherapy based on the Bobath concept for adults with post-stroke hemiplegia: a review of effectiveness studies. Journal of rehabilitation medicine. 2003;35:2–7.
    1. Bobath B. Adult hemiplegia: evaluation and treatment. Butterworth-Heinemann Medical; 1990.
    1. Langhammer B, Stanghelle JK. Bobath or motor relearning programme? A comparison of two different approaches of physiotherapy in stroke rehabilitation: a randomized controlled study. Clinical rehabilitation. 2000;14:361–369.
    1. Moros JS, Ballero F, Jáuregui S, Carroza MP. Rehabilitación en el ictus Rehabilitation in the stroke. ANALES Sis San Navarra. 2000. pp. 173–180.
    1. Stern PH, McDowell F, Miller JM, Robinson M. Effects of facilitation exercise techniques in stroke rehabilitation. Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation. 1970;51:526–531.
    1. Hesse S, Bertelt C, Jahnke MT, Schaffrin A, Baake P, Malezic M, Mauritz KH. Treadmill training with partial body weight support compared with physiotherapy in nonambulatory hemiparetic patients. Stroke. 1995;26:976–981.
    1. Dickstein R, Hocherman S, Pillar T, Shaham R. Stroke rehabilitation. Physical Therapy. 1986;66:1233–1238.
    1. Vojta V. The basic elements of treatment according to Vojta. Management of the Motor Disorders of Children with Cerebral Palsy. 1984. p. 75.
    1. Muñoz AM. LA PARÁLISIS CEREBRAL
    1. Kanda T, Pidcock FS, Hayakawa K, Yamori Y, Shikata Y. Motor outcome differences between two groups of children with spastic diplegia who received different intensities of early onset physiotherapy followed for 5 years. Brain and Development. 2004;26:118–126.
    1. Rood MS. Neurophysiological reactions as a basis for physical therapy. The Physical therapy review. 1954;34:444–449.
    1. Johnstone M, Barton E. Home care for the stroke patient: living in a pattern. Churchill Livingstone; 1996.
    1. Carr JH, Shepherd RB. A motor relearning programme for stroke. Butterworth-Heinemann; 1987.
    1. Anderson M, Lough S. A psychological framework for neurorehabilitation. Physiotherapy Theory and Practice. 1986;2:74–82.
    1. Turnbull GI. Some learning theory implications in neurological physiotherapy. Physiotherapy. 1982;68:38–41.
    1. Carr JH, Shepherd RB. A motor learning model for rehabilitation of the movement-disabled. Key Issues in Neurological Physiotherapy. Melksham: Redwood Press Ltd. 1990. pp. 1–24.
    1. Carr JH, Shepherd RB. Neurological rehabilitation: optimizing motor performance. Butterworth-Heinemann Medical; 1998.
    1. van de Port IG, Wood-Dauphinee S, Lindeman E, Kwakkel G. Effects of exercise training programs on walking competency after stroke: a systematic review. American Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation. 2007;86:935.
    1. Kwakkel G, Wagenaar RC, Twisk JW, Lankhorst GJ, Koetsier JC. Intensity of leg and arm training after primary middle-cerebral-artery stroke: a randomised trial. The Lancet. 1999;354:191–196.
    1. Govender P, Kalra L. Benefits of occupational therapy in stroke rehabilitation. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics. 2007;7:1013–1019.
    1. Perfetti C. L'exercice thérapeutique cognitif pour la rééducation du patient hémiplégique. Elsevier Masson; 2001.
    1. Carr JH, Shepherd RB. A motor relearning programme for stroke. Butterworth-Heinemann; 1987.
    1. Kinsman R, Verity R, Waller J. A conductive education approach for adults with neurological dysfunction. Physiotherapy. 1988;74:227–230.
    1. Affolter F. Perceptual processes as prerequisites for complex human behaviour. Disability & Rehabilitation. 1981;3:3–10.
    1. Ayres AJ. In: Sensory integration and learning disabilities. Western Psychological Services, editor. Los Angeles; 1972.
    1. Van Peppen RP, Kwakkel G, Wood-Dauphinee S, Hendriks HJ, Van der Wees PJ, Dekker J. The impact of physical therapy on functional outcomes after stroke: what's the evidence? Clinical rehabilitation. 2004;18:833–862.
    1. DerSimonian R, Laird N. Meta-analysis in clinical trials. Controlled clinical trials. 1986;7:177–188.
    1. Salbach NM, Mayo NE, Wood-Dauphinee S, Hanley JA, Richards CL, Cote R. A task-orientated intervention enhances walking distance and speed in the first year post stroke: a randomized controlled trial. Clinical rehabilitation. 2004;18:509–519.
    1. Kwakkel G, Kollen B, Lindeman E. Understanding the pattern of functional recovery after stroke: facts and theories. Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience. 2004;22:281–300.
    1. Levin MF, Kleim JA, Wolf SL. What Do Motor "Recovery" and "Compensation" Mean in Patients Following Stroke? Neurorehabilitation and neural repair. 2009;23:313.
    1. Murphy TH, Corbett D. Plasticity during stroke recovery: from synapse to behaviour. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 2009;10:861–872.
    1. Wevers L, van de Port I, Vermue M, Mead G, Kwakkel G. Effects of Task-Oriented Circuit Class Training on Walking Competency After Stroke. Stroke. 2009;40:2450–2459.
    1. Legg L, Pollock A, Langhorne P, Sellars C. A multidisciplinary research agenda for stroke rehabilitation. British Journal of Therapy and Rehabilitation. 2000;7:319–24.
    1. French B, Thomas LH, Leathley MJ, Sutton CJ, McAdam J, Forster A, Langhorne P, Price CI, Walker A, Watkins CL. Repetitive task training for improving functional ability after stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007;4
    1. Kwakkel G, Van Peppen R, Wagenaar RC, Dauphinee SW, Richards C, Ashburn A, Miller K, Lincoln N, Partridge C, Wellwood I, Effects of augmented exercise therapy time after stroke. A meta-analysis. Stroke. 2004. pp. 01–STR.
    1. Bernhardt J, Thuy MN, Collier JM, Legg LA. Very early versus delayed mobilisation after stroke. Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online) 2009. p. CD006187.
    1. Salbach NM, Mayo NE, Higgins J, Ahmed S, Finch LE, Richards CL. Responsiveness and predictability of gait speed and other disability measures in acute stroke* 1. Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation. 2001;82:1204–1212.
    1. Meek C, Pollock A, Potter J, Langhorne P. A systematic review of exercise trials post stroke. Clinical rehabilitation. 2003;17:6–13.
    1. Bates B, Choi JY, Duncan PW, Glasberg JJ, Graham GD, Katz RC, Lamberty K, Reker D, Zorowitz R. Veterans affairs/department of defense clinical practice guideline for the management of adult stroke rehabilitation care: executive summary. Stroke. 2005;36:2049–2056.
    1. States R, Salem Y, Pappas E. Overground gait trainer for individual chronic stroke: a cochrane systematic review. 2009. p. 4.
    1. Moseley AM, Stark A, Cameron ID, Pollock A. Treadmill training and body weight support for walking after stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2005;4
    1. Saunders DH, Greig CA, Young A, Mead GE. Physical fitness training for stroke patients. Stroke. 2004;35:2235–2235.
    1. Dohring ME, Daly JJ. Automatic Synchronization of Functional Electrical Stimulation and Robotic Assisted Treadmill Training. IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering. 2008;16:310–313.
    1. Hidler J, Nichols D, Pelliccio M, Brady K. Advances in the understanding and treatment of stroke impairment using robotic devices. Topics in stroke rehabilitation. 2005;12:22–35.
    1. Mirelman A, Bonato P, Deutsch JE. Effects of training with a robot-virtual reality system compared with a robot alone on the gait of individuals after stroke. Stroke. 2009;40:169–174.
    1. Fasoli SE, Krebs HI, Stein J, Frontera WR, Hughes R, Hogan N. Robotic therapy for chronic motor impairments after stroke: follow-up results1. Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation. 2004;85:1106–1111.
    1. Barbeau H, Visintin M. Optimal outcomes obtained with body-weight support combined with treadmill training in stroke subjects. Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation. 2003;84:1458–1465.
    1. Edwards DJ. On the understanding and development of modern physical neurorehabilitation methods: robotics and non-invasive brain stimulation. Journal of neuroengineering and rehabilitation. 2009;6:3.
    1. Duschau-Wicke A, von Zitzewitz J, Caprez A, Lunenburger L, Riener R. Path Control: A Method for Patient-Cooperative Robot-Aided Gait Rehabilitation. Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering, IEEE Transactions on. 2010;18:38–48.
    1. Kim SH, Banala SK, Brackbill EA, Agrawal SK, Krishnamoorthy V, Scholz JP. Robot-assisted modifications of gait in healthy individuals. Experimental brain research. 2010;202:809–824.
    1. Peshkin M, Brown DA, Santos-Munné JJ, Makhlin A, Lewis E, Colgate JE, Patton J, Schwandt D. KineAssist: A robotic overground gait and balance training device. Rehabilitation Robotics, 2005. ICORR 2005. 9th International Conference on. 2005. pp. 241–246.
    1. Riener R, Lunenburger L, Jezernik S, Anderschitz M, Colombo G, Dietz V. Patient-cooperative strategies for robot-aided treadmill training: first experimental results. Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering, IEEE Transactions on. 2005;13:380–394.
    1. McCain KJ, POLIO FE, Baum BS, Coleman SC, Baker S, Smith PS. Locomotor treadmill training with partial body-weight support before overground gait in adults with acute stroke: a pilot study. Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation. 2008;89:684–691.
    1. Hesse S, Uhlenbrock D, Werner C, Bardeleben A. A mechanized gait trainer for restoring gait in nonambulatory subjects. Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation. 2000;81:1158–1161.
    1. Colombo G. The, lokomat»-A driven ambulatory orthosis. MEDIZINISCH ORTHOPADISCHE TECHNIK. 2000;120:178–181.
    1. Moseley AM, Stark A, Cameron ID, Pollock A. Treadmill training and body weight support for walking after stroke. Stroke. 2003;34:3006.
    1. Pohl M, Werner C, Holzgraefe M, Kroczek G, Wingendorf I, Hoölig G, Koch R, Hesse S. Repetitive locomotor training and physiotherapy improve walking and basic activities of daily living after stroke: a single-blind, randomized multicentre trial (DEutsche GAngtrainerStudie, DEGAS) Clinical Rehabilitation. 2007;21:17–27.
    1. Duncan PW, Propst M, Nelson SG. Reliability of the Fugl-Meyer assessment of sensorimotor recovery following cerebrovascular accident. Physical Therapy. 1983;63:1606–1610.
    1. Bogey R, Hornby GT. Gait training strategies utilized in poststroke rehabilitation: are we really making a difference? Topics in Stroke Rehabilitation. 2007;14:1–8.
    1. Mehrholz J, Werner C, Kugler J, Pohl M. Electromechanical-assisted training for walking after stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007;4
    1. Visintin M, Barbeau H, Korner-Bitensky N, Mayo NE. A new approach to retrain gait in stroke patients through body weight support and treadmill stimulation. Stroke. 1998;29:1122–1128.
    1. Luft AR, Macko RF, Forrester LW, Villagra F, Ivey F, Sorkin JD, Whitall J, McCombe-Waller S, Katzel L, Goldberg AP. et al.Treadmill exercise activates subcortical neural networks and improves walking after stroke: a randomized controlled trial. Stroke. 2008;39:3341–3350.
    1. Mayr A, Kofler M, Quirbach E, Matzak H, Fröhlich K, Saltuari L. Prospective, blinded, randomized crossover study of gait rehabilitation in stroke patients using the Lokomat gait orthosis. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair. 2007;21:307–314.
    1. Monaco V, Galardi G, Jung JH, Bagnato S, Boccagni C, Micera S. A new robotic platform for gait rehabilitation of bedridden stroke patients. Rehabilitation Robotics, 2009. ICORR 2009. IEEE International Conference on. 2009. pp. 383–388.
    1. Monaco V, Jung JH, Macrì G, Bagnato S, Micera S, Carrozza MC, Galardi G. Robotic system for gait rehabilitations of stroke patients during the acute phase
    1. Forrester LW, Roy A, Krebs HI, Macko RF. Ankle Training With a Robotic Device Improves Hemiparetic Gait After a Stroke. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair. 2010. pp. 369–377.
    1. Song R, Tong K, Hu X. Assistive control system using continuous myoelectric signal in robot-aided arm training for patients after stroke. Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering, IEEE Transactions on. 2008;16:371–379.
    1. Ueda J, Ming D, Krishnamoorthy V, Shinohara M, Ogasawara T. Individual Muscle Control Using an Exoskeleton Robot for Muscle Function Testing. Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering, IEEE Transactions on. 2010;18:339–350.
    1. Hyngstrom A, Onushko T, Chua M, Schmit BD. Abnormal Volitional Hip Torque Phasing and Hip Impairments in Gait Post Stroke. Journal of neurophysiology. 2010;103:1557–1568.
    1. Hornby TG, Campbell DD, Kahn JH, Demott T, Moore JL, Roth HR. Enhanced gait-related improvements after therapist-versus robotic-assisted locomotor training in subjects with chronic stroke: a randomized controlled study. Stroke. 2008;39:1786–1792.
    1. Hidler J, Nichols D, Pelliccio M, Brady K, Campbell DD, Kahn JH, Hornby TG. Multicenter randomized clinical trial evaluating the effectiveness of the Lokomat in subacute stroke. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair. 2009;23:5–13.
    1. Dobkin BH. Strategies for stroke rehabilitation. The Lancet Neurology. 2004;3:528–536.
    1. Iosa M, Morone G, Bragoni M, De Angelis D, Venturiero V, Coiro P, Pratesi L, Paolucci S. Driving electromechanically assisted Gait Trainer for people with stroke. Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development. pp. 135–146.
    1. Morone G, Bragoni M, Iosa M, De Angelis D, Venturiero V, Coiro P, Pratesi L, Paolucci S. Who may benefit from robotic-assisted gait training? A randomized clinical trial in patients with subacute stroke. 2011.
    1. Moreno JC, del Ama AJ, de los Reyes-Guzmán A, Gil-Agudo Á, Ceres R, Pons JL. Neurorobotic and hybrid management of lower limb motor disorders: a review. Medical and Biological Engineering and Computing. 2011. pp. 1–12.
    1. Robbins SM, Houghton PE, Woodbury MG, Brown JL. The therapeutic effect of functional and transcutaneous electric stimulation on improving gait speed in stroke patients: a meta-analysis. Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation. 2006;87:853–859.
    1. Bogataj U, Gros N, Kljajic M, Acimovic R, Malezic M. The rehabilitation of gait in patients with hemiplegia: a comparison between conventional therapy and multichannel functional electrical stimulation therapy. Physical Therapy. 1995;75:490–502.
    1. Stanic U, Acimović-Janezic R, Gros N, Trnkoczy A, Bajd T, Kljajić M. Multichannel electrical stimulation for correction of hemiplegic gait. Methodology and preliminary results. Scandinavian journal of rehabilitation medicine. 1978;10:75–92.
    1. Bogataj U, Gros N, Malezic M, Kelih B, Kljajic M, Acimovic R. Restoration of gait during two to three weeks of therapy with multichannel electrical stimulation. Physical Therapy. 1989;69:319.
    1. Bogataj U, Gros N, Kljajic M, Acimovic-Janezic R. Enhanced rehabilitation of gait after stroke: a case report of a therapeutic approach using multichannel functional electrical stimulation. Rehabilitation Engineering, IEEE Transactions on. 2002;5:221–232.
    1. Kottink AI, Oostendorp LJ, Buurke JH, Nene AV, Hermens HJ, IJzerman MJ. The orthotic effect of functional electrical stimulation on the improvement of walking in stroke patients with a dropped foot: a systematic review. Artificial organs. 2004;28:577–586.
    1. Teasell RW, Foley NC, Bhogal SK, Speechley MR. An evidence-based review of stroke rehabilitation. Topics in stroke Rehabilitation. 2002;10:29–58.
    1. Ng MF, Tong RK, Li LS. A pilot study of randomized clinical controlled trial of gait training in subacute stroke patients with partial body-weight support electromechanical gait trainer and functional electrical stimulation: six-month follow-up. Stroke. 2008;39:154–160.
    1. Tong RK, Ng MF, Li LS, So EF. Gait training of patients after stroke using an electromechanical gait trainer combined with simultaneous functional electrical stimulation. Physical Therapy. 2006;86:1282–1294.
    1. Chae J. Neuromuscular electrical stimulation for motor relearning in hemiparesis. Physical medicine and rehabilitation clinics of North America. 2003;14:93–109.
    1. Krakauer JW. Motor learning: its relevance to stroke recovery and neurorehabilitation. Current Opinion in Neurology. 2006;19:84–90.
    1. Barsi GI, Popovic DB, Tarkka IM, Sinkjaer T, Grey MJ. Cortical excitability changes following grasping exercise augmented with electrical stimulation. Experimental brain research. 2008;191:57–66.
    1. Buch E, Weber C, Cohen LG, Braun C, Dimyan MA, Ard T, Mellinger J, Caria A, Soekadar S, Fourkas A. et al.Think to move: a neuromagnetic brain-computer interface (BCI) system for chronic stroke. Stroke. 2008;39:910–917.
    1. Wolpaw JR, Birbaumer N, McFarland DJ, Pfurtscheller G, Vaughan TM. Brain-computer interfaces for communication and control. Clinical neurophysiology. 2002;113:767–791.
    1. Birbaumer N, Kubler A, Ghanayim N, Hinterberger T, Perelmouter J, Kaiser J, Iversen I, Kotchoubey B, Neumann N, Flor H. The thought translation device (TTD) for completely paralyzed patients. Rehabilitation Engineering, IEEE Transactions on. 2000;8:190–193.
    1. Pfurtscheller G, Müller GR, Pfurtscheller J, Gerner HJ, Rupp R. [] Thought'-control of functional electrical stimulation to restore hand grasp in a patient with tetraplegia. Neuroscience letters. 2003;351:33–36.
    1. Allison BZ, Wolpaw EW, Wolpaw JR. Braincomputer interface systems: progress and prospects. Expert review of medical devices. 2007;4:463–474.
    1. Sepulveda F. An Overview of BMIs. International Review of Neurobiology. 2009;86:93–106.
    1. Min BK, Marzelli MJ, Yoo SS. Neuroimaging-based approaches in the brain-computer interface. Trends in biotechnology. 2010. pp. 552–560.
    1. Daly JJ, Wolpaw JR. Brain-computer interfaces in neurological rehabilitation. The Lancet Neurology. 2008;7:1032–1043.
    1. Birbaumer N. Breaking the silence: brain-computer interfaces (BCI) for communication and motor control. Psychophysiology. 2006;43:517–532.
    1. Wolpaw JR, Birbaumer N, McFarland DJ, Pfurtscheller G, Vaughan TM. Brain-computer interfaces for communication and control. Clinical neurophysiology. 2002;113:767–791.
    1. Birbaumer N, Murguialday AR, Cohen L. Brain-computer interface in paralysis. Current opinion in neurology. 2008;21:634–638.
    1. Mason SG, Bashashati A, Fatourechi M, Navarro KF, Birch GE. A comprehensive survey of brain interface technology designs. Annals of Biomedical Engineering. 2007;35:137–169.
    1. Pfurtscheller G, Neuper C, Flotzinger D, Pregenzer M. EEG-based discrimination between imagination of right and left hand movement. Electroencephalography and clinical Neurophysiology. 1997;103:642–651.
    1. Pfurtscheller G, Neuper C. Future prospects of ERD/ERS in the context of brain-computer interface (BCI) developments. Progress in Brain Research. 2006;159:433–437.
    1. Wolpaw JR, McFarland DJ, Vaughan TM, Schalk G. The Wadsworth Center brain-computer interface (BCI) research and development program. Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering, IEEE Transactions on. 2003;11:1–4.
    1. Mellinger J, Schalk G, Braun C, Preissl H, Rosenstiel W, Birbaumer N, Kubler A. An MEG-based brain-computer interface (BCI) Neuroimage. 2007;36:581–593.
    1. Scherer R, Graimann B, Huggins JE, Levine SR, Pfurtscheller G. Frequency Component Selection for an ECoG-based Brain-Computer Interface. Auswahl von Frequenzkomponenten aus ECoG-Signalen zur Steuerung eines Brain Computer Interface. Biomedizinische Technik/Biomedical Engineering. 2003;48:31–36.
    1. Leuthardt EC, Schalk G, Wolpaw JR, Ojemann JG, Moran DW. A brain-computer interface using electrocorticographic signals in humans. Journal of Neural Engineering. 2004;1:63–71.
    1. Shenoy P, Miller KJ, Ojemann JG, Rao RP. Generalized features for electrocorticographic BCIs. Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on. 2008;55:273–280.
    1. Sitaram R, Weiskopf N, Caria A, Veit R, Erb M, Birbaumer N. fMRI brain-computer interfaces. Signal Processing Magazine, IEEE. 2008;25:95–106.
    1. Coyle SM, Ward TE, Markham CM. Brain-computer interface using a simplified functional near-infrared spectroscopy system. Journal of neural engineering. 2007;4:219–226.
    1. Sitaram R, Zhang H, Guan C, Thulasidas M, Hoshi Y, Ishikawa A, Shimizu K, Birbaumer N. Temporal classification of multichannel near-infrared spectroscopy signals of motor imagery for developing a brain-computer interface. NeuroImage. 2007;34:1416–1427.
    1. Carrillo-de-la-Pena MT, Galdo-Alvarez S, Lastra-Barreira C. Equivalent is not equal: Primary motor cortex (MI) activation during motor imagery and execution of sequential movements. Brain research. 2008;1226:134–143.
    1. Pfurtscheller G, Neuper C. Event-related synchronization of mu rhythm in the EEG over the cortical hand area in man. Neuroscience letters. 1994;174:93–96.
    1. Neuper C, Pfurtscheller G. Event-related dynamics of cortical rhythms: frequency-specific features and functional correlates. International Journal of Psychophysiology. 2001;43:41–58.
    1. Pfurtscheller G, Neuper C. Motor imagery and direct brain-computer communication. Proceedings of the IEEE. 2001;89:1123–1134.
    1. Kübler A, Nijboer F, Mellinger J, Vaughan TM, Pawelzik H, Schalk G, McFarland DJ, Birbaumer N, Wolpaw JR. Patients with ALS can use sensorimotor rhythms to operate a brain-computer interface. Neurology. 2005;64:1775–1777.
    1. Muller-Putz GR, Zimmermann D, Graimann B, Nestinger K, Korisek G, Pfurtscheller G. Event-related beta EEG-changes during passive and attempted foot movements in paraplegic patients. Brain research. 2007;1137:84–91.
    1. Mattia D, Cincotti F, Astolfi L, de Vico Fallani F, Scivoletto G, Marciani MG, Babiloni F. Motor cortical responsiveness to attempted movements in tetraplegia: Evidence from neuroelectrical imaging. Clinical Neurophysiology. 2009;120:181–189.
    1. Scherer R, Mohapp A, Grieshofer P, Pfurtscheller G, Neuper C. Sensorimotor EEG patterns during motor imagery in hemiparetic stroke patients. Int J Bioelectromagn. 2007;9:155–162.
    1. Page SJ, Levine P, Leonard A. Mental practice in chronic stroke: results of a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Stroke. 2007;38:1293–1297.
    1. Sharma N, Pomeroy VM, Baron JC. Motor imagery: a backdoor to the motor system after stroke? Stroke. 2006;37:1941–1952.
    1. Broetz D, Braun C, Weber C, Soekadar SR, Caria A, Birbaumer N. Combination of brain-computer interface training and goal-directed physical therapy in chronic stroke: a case report. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair. 2010;24:674.
    1. Caria A, Weber C, Brötz D, Ramos A, Ticini LF, Gharabaghi A, Braun C, Birbaumer N. BRIEF REPORT: Chronic stroke recovery after combined BCI training and physiotherapy: A case report. Psychophysiology. 2010. pp. 578–582.
    1. Daly JJ, Cheng R, Rogers J, Litinas K, Hrovat K, Dohring M. Feasibility of a new application of noninvasive brain computer interface (BCI): a case study of training for recovery of volitional motor control after stroke. Journal of Neurologic Physical Therapy. 2009;33:203–211.
    1. Mark J, Wolpaw JR. Clinical Applications of Brain-Computer Interfaces: Current State and Future Prospects. 2009. pp. 187–199.
    1. Wang W, Collinger JL, Perez MA, Tyler-Kabara EC, Cohen LG, Birbaumer N, Brose SW, Schwartz AB, Boninger ML, Weber DJ. Neural interface technology for rehabilitation: exploiting and promoting neuroplasticity. Physical medicine and rehabilitation clinics of North America. 2010;21:157–178.
    1. Soekadar SR, Birbaumer N, Cohen LG, Cohen LG. Brain-computer-interfaces in the rehabilitation of stroke and neurotrauma
    1. Ang KK, Guan C, Chua SG, Ang BT, Kuah C, Wang C, Phua KS, Chin ZY, Zhang H. A clinical study of motor imagery-based brain-computer interface for upper limb robotic rehabilitation. Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, 2009. EMBC 2009. Annual International Conference of the IEEE. 2009. pp. 5981–5984.
    1. Ang KK, Guan C, Chua KS, Ang BT, Kuah C, Wang C, Phua KS, Chin ZY, Zhang H. Clinical study of neurorehabilitation in stroke using EEG-based motor imagery brain-computer interface with robotic feedback. Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC), 2010 Annual International Conference of the IEEE. 2010. pp. 5549–5552.
    1. Platz T, Kim IH, Engel U, Kieselbach A, Mauritz KH. Brain activation pattern as assessed with multi-modal EEG analysis predict motor recovery among stroke patients with mild arm paresis who receive the Arm Ability Training. Restorative neurology and neuroscience. 2002;20:21–36.
    1. Daly JJ, Fang Y, Perepezko EM, Siemionow V, Yue GH. Prolonged cognitive planning time, elevated cognitive effort, and relationship to coordination and motor control following stroke. Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering, IEEE Transactions on. 2006;14:168–171.
    1. Prasad G, Herman P, Coyle D, McDonough S, Crosbie J. Using motor imagery based brain-computer interface for post-stroke rehabilitation. Neural Engineering, 2009. NER'09. 4th International IEEE/EMBS Conference on. 2009. pp. 258–262.
    1. Girijesh P, Pawel H, Damien C, Suzanne MD, Jacqueline C. Applying a brain-computer interface to support motor imagery practice in people with stroke for upper limb recovery: a feasibility study. Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation.
    1. Tan HG, Kong KH, Shee CY, Wang CC, Guan CT, Ang WT. Post-acute stroke patients use brain-computer interface to activate electrical stimulation. Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC), 2010 Annual International Conference of the IEEE. 2010. pp. 4234–4237.
    1. Dickstein R, Deutsch JE. Motor imagery in physical therapist practice. Physical therapy. 2007;87:942.
    1. Dickstein R, Dunsky A, Marcovitz E. Motor imagery for gait rehabilitation in post-stroke hemiparesis. Physical therapy. 2004;84:1167.
    1. Malouin F, Richards CL. Mental practice for relearning locomotor skills. Physical therapy. 2010;90:240–251.
    1. Malouin F, Richards CL, Durand A, Doyon J. Clinical assessment of motor imagery after stroke. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair. 2008;22:330.
    1. Kwakkel G, Probability of regaining dexterity in the flaccid upper limb. Impact of severity of paresis and time since onset in acute stroke. Stroke. 2003. pp. 2181–2186.
    1. Broetz D, Braun C, Weber C, Soekadar SR, Caria A, Birbaumer N. Combination of brain-computer interface training and goal-directed physical therapy in chronic stroke: a case report. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair. 2010;24:674–679.
    1. Pressaco A, Forrester L, Contreras Vidal JL. Integrating Technology and Medicine for a Healthier Tomorrow. Boston; 2011. Towards a non-invasive brain-machine interface system to restore gait function in humans; pp. 4588–4591.
    1. Villringer A, Obrig H. Near Infrared Spectroscopy and Imaging. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science; 2002.
    1. Atsumori H, Kiguchi M, Obata A, Sato H, Katura T, Utsugi K, Funane T, Maki A. Development of a multi-channel, portable optical topography system. Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, 2007. EMBS 2007. 29th Annual International Conference of the IEEE. 2007. pp. 3362–3364.
    1. Hoshi Y. Functional near-infrared spectroscopy: current status and future prospects. Journal of Biomedical Optics. 2007;12:062106.
    1. Hoshi Y, Kobayashi N, Tamura M. Interpretation of near-infrared spectroscopy signals: a study with a newly developed perfused rat brain model. Journal of Applied Physiology. 2001;90:1657–1662.
    1. Miyai I, Tanabe HC, Sase I, Eda H, Oda I, Konishi I, Tsunazawa Y, Suzuki T, Yanagida T, Kubota K. Cortical mapping of gait in humans: a near-infrared spectroscopic topography study. Neuroimage. 2001;14:1186–1192.
    1. Suzuki M, Miyai I, Ono T, Oda I, Konishi I, Kochiyama T, Kubota K. Prefrontal and premotor cortices are involved in adapting walking and running speed on the treadmill: an optical imaging study. Neuroimage. 2004;23:1020–1026.
    1. Mihara M, Miyai I, Hatakenaka M, Kubota K, Sakoda S. Role of the prefrontal cortex in human balance control. Neuroimage. 2008;43:329–336.
    1. Suzuki M, Miyai I, Ono T, Kubota K. Activities in the frontal cortex and gait performance are modulated by preparation. An fNIRS study. Neuroimage. 2008;39:600–607.
    1. Harada T, Miyai I, Suzuki M, Kubota K. Gait capacity affects cortical activation patterns related to speed control in the elderly. Experimental brain research. 2009;193:445–454.
    1. Miyai I, Yagura H, Oda I, Konishi I, Eda H, Suzuki T, Kubota K. Premotor cortex is involved in restoration of gait in stroke. Annals of neurology. 2002;52:188–194.
    1. Miyai I, Yagura H, Hatakenaka M, Oda I, Konishi I, Kubota K. Longitudinal optical imaging study for locomotor recovery after stroke. Stroke. 2003;34:2866–2870.
    1. Mihara M, Miyai I, Hatakenaka M, Kubota K, Sakoda S. Sustained prefrontal activation during ataxic gait: A compensatory mechanism for ataxic stroke? Neuroimage. 2007;37:1338–1345.
    1. Coyle S, Ward T, Markham C, McDarby G. On the suitability of near-infrared (NIR) systems for next-generation brain-computer interfaces. Physiological Measurement. 2004;25:815–822.
    1. Sitaram R, Hoshi Y. Near infrared spectroscopy based brain_computer interface. Fundamental problems of optoelectronics and microelectronics II, proceedings of the SPIE. 2005.
    1. Sitaram R, Zhang H, Guan C, Thulasidas M, Hoshi Y, Ishikawa A, Shimizu K, Birbaumer N. Temporal classification of multichannel near-infrared spectroscopy signals of motor imagery for developing a brain-computer interface. NeuroImage. 2007;34:1416–1427.
    1. Naito M, Michioka Y, Ozawa K, Ito Y, Kiguchi M, Kanazawa T. A communication means for totally locked-in ALS patients based on changes in cerebral blood volume measured with near-infrared light. IEICE transactions on information and systems. 2007;90:1028–1037.
    1. Bauernfeind G, Leeb R, Wriessnegger SC, Pfurtscheller G. Development, set-up and first results for a one-channel near-infrared spectroscopy system/Entwicklung, Aufbau und vorläufige Ergebnisse eines Einkanal-Nahinfrarot-Spektroskopie-Systems. Biomedizinische Technik. 2008;53:36–43.
    1. Pfurtscheller G, Allison BZ, Brunner C, Bauernfeind G, Solis-Escalante T, Scherer R, Zander TO, Mueller-Putz G, Neuper C, Birbaumer N. The hybrid BCI. Frontiers in neuroscience. 2010;4
    1. Sitaram R, Caria A, Veit R, Gaber T, Rota G, Kuebler A, Birbaumer N. fMRI brain-computer interface: A tool for neuroscientific research and treatment. Computational intelligence and neuroscience. 2007;2007:1–10.
    1. Vapnik V. Statistical learning theory. Wiley, New York; 1998.
    1. Blankertz B, Curio G, Müller KR. Classifying single trial EEG: Towards brain computer interfacing. Advances in neural information processing systems 14: proceedings of the 2002 conference. 2002. p. 157.
    1. Rabiner LR. A tutorial on hidden Markov models and selected applications in speech recognition. Proceedings of the IEEE. 1989;77:257–286.
    1. Rea M, Terekhin P, Sitaram R, Ehlis A, Täglich R, Fallgater A, Birbaumer N, Caria A. An exploratory fNIRS study towards the implementation of a BCI for lower limbs movements. Quebec, Canada; 2011.
    1. Wolpaw JR, McFarland DJ. Multichannel EEG-based brain-computer communication* 1. Electroencephalography and clinical Neurophysiology. 1994;90:444–449.
    1. Yan T, Hui-Chan CW, Li LS. Functional electrical stimulation improves motor recovery of the lower extremity and walking ability of subjects with first acute stroke: a randomized placebo-controlled trial. Stroke. 2005;36:80–85.
    1. Ang KK, Guan C, Chua SG, Ang BT, Kuah C, Wang C, Phua KS, Chin ZY, Zhang H. A clinical study of motor imagery-based brain-computer interface for upper limb robotic rehabilitation. Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, 2009. EMBC 2009. Annual International Conference of the IEEE. 2009. pp. 5981–5984.

Source: PubMed

Sponsorer og samarbejdspartnere

Medicinske tilstande

Narkotikainterventioner

3
Abonner