Prevalence of vitamin D deficiency among healthy infants and toddlers

Abstract

Objectives: To determine the prevalence of vitamin D deficiency and to examine whether 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25OHD) concentration varies as a function of skin pigmentation, season, sun exposure, breastfeeding, and vitamin D supplementation.

Design: Cross-sectional sample.

Setting: Urban primary care clinic.

Participants: Healthy infants and toddlers (N = 380) who were seen for a routine health visit.

Outcome measures: Primary outcomes were serum 25OHD and parathyroid hormone levels; secondary measures included data on sun exposure, nutrition, skin pigmentation, and parental health habits. Wrist and knee radiographs were obtained for vitamin D-deficient participants.

Results: The prevalence of vitamin D deficiency (< or =20 ng/mL) was 12.1% (44 of 365 participants), and 146 participants (40.0%) had levels below an accepted optimal threshold (< or =30 ng/mL). The prevalence did not vary between infants and toddlers or by skin pigmentation. There was an inverse correlation between serum 25OHD and parathyroid hormone levels (infants: r = -0.27, P < .001; toddlers: r = -0.20, P = .02). In multivariable models, breastfeeding without supplementation among infants and lower milk intake among toddlers were significant predictors of vitamin D deficiency. In vitamin D-deficient participants, 3 participants (7.5%) exhibited rachitic changes on radiographs, whereas 13 (32.5%) had evidence of demineralization.

Conclusions: Suboptimal vitamin D status is common among otherwise healthy young children. Predictors of vitamin D status vary in infants vs toddlers, information that is important to consider in the care of these young patients. One-third of vitamin D-deficient participants exhibited demineralization, highlighting the deleterious skeletal effects of this condition.

Figures

Figure

Nutritional factors associated with serum levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25OHD) in 247 infants at their 9-month visit to a primary care clinic (A) and 133 toddlers at their 18-month visit (B). Bars indicate mean and standard error of the mean. D Suppl indicates vitamin D supplementation. To convert 25OHD to nanomoles per liter, multiply by 2.496.