Adverse reactions of Amiodarone

Ruben Ml Colunga Biancatelli, Viviana Congedo, Leonardo Calvosa, Marco Ciacciarelli, Alessandro Polidoro, Luigi Iuliano, Ruben Ml Colunga Biancatelli, Viviana Congedo, Leonardo Calvosa, Marco Ciacciarelli, Alessandro Polidoro, Luigi Iuliano

Abstract

Adverse drug reaction is defined by the World Health Organization as any response to a drug that is noxious and unintended and occurs at a dose normally used in man. Older people are at elevated risk of adverse drug reactions-because of changes in pharmacodynamics, concurrent use of multiple medications and the related drug interactions. However, adverse drug reactions are significantly underestimated in the elderly population that is also exposed to inappropriate drugs. Amiodarone is an antiarrhythmic drug used commonly for the treatment of atrial fibrillation and is increasingly prescribed in older people. While amiodarone is an efficient drug for rhythm control, it's a carrier of different adverse reactions, and pro and cons must be carefully evaluated before its use especially in older people.

Keywords: Amiodarone; Atrial fibrillation; Drug toxicity; Drug-adverse reaction.

Figures

Figure 1.. Amiodarone and its metabolites in…
Figure 1.. Amiodarone and its metabolites in human plasma.

References

    1. Raviña T, Gutierrez J. Amiodarone-induced AV block and ventricular standstill. A forme fruste of an idiopathic long QT syndrome. Int J Cardiol. 2000;75:105–108.
    1. Rabinovitz H, Berkowitch M, Golik A, Shani S. [Adverse drug reactions definitions and terminology] Harefuah. 2001;140:1181–1186. 1228. [Article in Hebrew]
    1. Moore TJ, Cohen MR, Furberg CD. Serious adverse drug events reported to the Food and Drug Administration, 1998–2005. Arch Intern Med. 2007;167:1752–1759.
    1. Classen DC, Pestotnik SL, Evans RS, et al. Adverse drug events in hospitalized patients. Excess length of stay, extra costs, and attributable mortality. JAMA. 1997;277:301–306.
    1. Pirmohamed M, James S, Meakin S, et al. Adverse drug reactions as cause of admission to hospital: prospective analysis of 18820 patients. BMJ. 2004;329:15–19.
    1. Schurig AM, Böhme M, Just KS, et al. Adverse Drug Reactions (ADR) and emergencies. Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2018;115:251–258.
    1. Ognibene S, Vazzana N, Giumelli C, et al. Hospitalisation and morbidity due to adverse drug reactions in elderly patients: a single-centre study. Intern Med J. 2018;48:1192–1197.
    1. Doyle JF, Ho KM. Benefits and risks of long-term amiodarone therapy for persistent atrial fibrillation: a meta-analysis. Mayo Clin Proc. 2009;84:234–242.
    1. World Health Organization. Trace elements in human nutrition and health. Geneva: Macmillian Ceuterick; 1996. p. p62.
    1. Martino E, Bartalena L, Bogazzi F, Braverman LE. The effects of amiodarone on the thyroid. Endocr Rev. 2001;22:240–254.
    1. Hrudikova Vyskocilova E, Grundmann M, et al. Therapeutic monitoring of amiodarone: pharmacokinetics and evaluation of the relationship between effect and dose/concentration. Biomed Pap Med Fac Univ Palacky Olomouc Czech Repub. 2017;161:134–143.
    1. Meng X, Mojaverian P, Doedee M, et al. Bioavailability of amiodarone tablets administered with and without food in healthy subjects. Am J Cardiol. 2001;87:432–435.
    1. Basaria S, Cooper DS. Amiodarone and the thyroid. Am J Med. 2005;118:706–714.
    1. Aronow WS. Management of the older person with atrial fibrillation. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2002;57:M352–M363.
    1. Soyama A, Hanioka N, Saito Y, et al. Amiodarone N-deethylation by CYP2C8 and its variants, CYP2C8*3 and CYP2C8 P404A. Pharmacol Toxicol. 2002;91:174–178.
    1. Torres-Arraut E, Singh S, Pickoff AS. Electrophysiologic effects of tween 80 in the myocardium and specialized conduction system of the canine heart. J Electrocardiol. 1984;17:145–151.
    1. Veronese ME, McLean S, Hendriks R. Plasma protein binding of amiodarone in a patient population: measurement by erythrocyte partitioning and a novel glass-binding method. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1988;26:721–731.
    1. Bohets H, Lavrijsen K, Hendrickx J, et al. Identification of the cytochrome P450 enzymes involved in the metabolism of cisapride: in vitro studies of potential co-medication interactions. Br J Pharmacol. 2000;129:1655–1667.
    1. Sanoski CA, Bauman JL. Clinical observations with the amiodarone/warfarin interaction: dosing relationships with long-term therapy. Chest. 2002;121:19–23.
    1. Hori R, Okamura N, Aiba T, Tanigawara Y. Role of P-glycoprotein in renal tubular secretion of digoxin in the isolated perfused rat kidney. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1993;266:1620–1625.
    1. Amiodarone—FDA prescribing information, side effects and uses'. [(Accessed August 9, 2018)]. .
    1. Epstein AE, Olshansky B, Naccarelli GV, et al. Practical management guide for clinicians who treat patients with amiodarone. Am J Med. 2016;129:468–475.
    1. Doval HC, Nul DR, Grancelli HO, et al. Randomised trial of low-dose amiodarone in severe congestive heart failure. Grupo de Estudio de la Sobrevida en la Insuficiencia Cardiaca en Argentina (GESICA) Lancet. 1994;344:493–498.
    1. Garguichevich JJ, Ramos J L, Gambarte A, et al. Effect of amiodarone therapy on mortality in patients with left ventricular dysfunction and asymptomatic complex ventricular arrhythmias: Argentine Pilot Study of Sudden Death and Amiodarone (EPAMSA) Am Heart J. 1995;130:494–500.
    1. Bardy GH, Lee KL, Mark DB, et al. Amiodarone or an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator for congestive heart failure. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:225–237.
    1. Zipes DP, Prystowsky EN, Heger JJ. Amiodarone: electrophysiologic actions, pharmacokinetics and clinical effects. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1984;3:1059–1071.
    1. January CT, Wann LS, Alpert JS, et al. 2014 AHA/ACC/HRS guideline for the management of patients with atrial fibrillation: executive summary: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on practice guidelines and the Heart Rhythm Society. Circulation. 2014;130:2071–2104.
    1. Chatterjee S, Sardar P, Mukherjee D, et al. Timing and route of amiodarone for prevention of postoperative atrial fibrillation after cardiac surgery: a network regression meta-analysis. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 2013;36:1017–1023.
    1. Dohadwala M, Kamili F, Estes NM, Homoud M. Atrioventricular block and pause-dependent torsade de pointes. HeartRhythm Case Rep. 2017;3:115–119.
    1. Van Mieghem W, Coolen L, Malysse I, et al. Amiodarone and the development of ARDS after lung surgery. Chest. 1994;105:1642–1645.
    1. Anastasiou-Nana MI, Nanas JN, Nanas SN, et al. Effects of amiodarone on refractory ventricular fibrillation in acute myocardial infarction: experimental study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1994;23:253–258.
    1. Galve E, Rius T, Ballester R, et al. Intravenous amiodarone in treatment of recent-onset atrial fibrillation: results of a randomized, controlled study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1996;27:1079–1082.
    1. Alawami M, Chatfield A, Ghashi R, Walker L. Atrial fibrillation after cardiac surgery: prevention and management: the Australasian experience. J Saudi Heart Assoc. 2018;30:40–46.
    1. Cordarone (Amiodarone Hydrochloride)—Drug Interactions, Contraindications, Other Rx Info. [(Accessed August 9, 2018)].
    1. Nafrialdi N, Kurniawan TG, Setiawati A, Makmun LH. QT interval prolongation associated with amiodarone use in Cipto Mangunkusumo Hospital, Jakarta. Acta Med Indones. 2014;46:292–297.
    1. Stramba-Badiale M, Locati EH, Martinelli A, et al. Gender and the relationship between ventricular repolarization and cardiac cycle length during 24-h Holter recordings. Eur Heart J. 1997;18:1000–1006.
    1. Lim HE, Pak HN, Ahn JC, et al. Torsade de pointes induced by short-term oral amiodarone therapy. Europace. 2006;8:1051–1053.
    1. Hoffmann C, Falzone E, Augé M, et al. Long QT syndrome, amiodarone use, and the mechanism underlying lidocaine toxicity. Anesth Analg. 2012;115:1253–1254.
    1. Antonelli D, Atar S, Freedberg NA, Rosenfeld T. Torsade de pointes in patients on chronic amiodarone treatment: contributing factors and drug interactions. Isr Med Assoc J. 2005;7:163–165.
    1. Doshi D, Jayawardana R. Amiodarone-induced life-threatening refractory hypotension. Am J Case Rep. 2015;16:617–620.
    1. Ingram DV, Jaggarao NS, Chamberlain DA. Ocular changes resulting from therapy with amiodarone. Br J Ophthalmol. 1982;66:676–679.
    1. Shukla R, Jowett NI, Thompson DR, Pohl JE. Side effects with amiodarone therapy. Postgrad Med J. 1994;70:492–498.
    1. Park HS, Kim YN. Adverse effects of long-term amiodarone therapy. Korean J Intern Med. 2014;29:571–573.
    1. Mäntyjärvi M, Tuppurainen K, Ikäheimo K. Ocular side effects of amiodarone. Surv Ophthalmol. 1998;42:360–366.
    1. Rucker JC, Biousse V, Newman NJ. Ischemic optic neuropathies. Curr Opin Neurol. 2004;17:27–35.
    1. Mindel JS, Anderson J, Johnson G, et al. Absence of bilateral vision loss from amiodarone: a randomized trial. Am Heart J. 2007;153:837–842.
    1. Passman RS, Bennett CL, Purpura JM, et al. Amiodarone-associated optic neuropathy: a critical review. Am J Med. 2012;125:447–453.
    1. Mansour AM, Puklin JE, O'Grady R. Optic nerve ultrastructure following amiodarone therapy. J Clin Neuroophthalmol. 1988;8:231–237.
    1. Abarbanel JM, Osiman A, Frisher S, Herishanu Y. Peripheral neuropathy and cerebellar syndrome associated with amiodarone therapy. Isr J Med Sci. 1987;23:893–895.
    1. Costa-Jussà FR, Jacobs JM. The pathology of amiodarone neurotoxicity. II. Peripheral neuropathy in man. Brain. 1985;108:753–769.
    1. Beck RW, Servais GE, Hayreh SS. Anterior ischemic optic neuropathy. IX. Cup-to-disc ratio and its role in pathogenesis. Ophthalmology. 1987;94:1503–1508.
    1. Johnson LN, Krohel GB, Thomas ER. The clinical spectrum of amiodarone-associated optic neuropathy. J Natl Med Assoc. 2004;96:1477–1491.
    1. Venkatesh N, Singh BN, Al-Sarraf L, Kannan R. Digoxin-desethylamiodarone interaction in the rat: comparison with the effects of amiodarone. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 1986;8:309–313.
    1. Al-Khatib SM, Stevenson WG, Ackerman MJ, et al. 2017 AHA/ACC/HRS guideline for management of patients with ventricular arrhythmias and the prevention of sudden cardiac death: Executive summary: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines and the Heart Rhythm Society. Heart Rhythm. 2018;15:e190–e252.
    1. Rotmensch HH, Liron M, Tupilski M, Laniado S. Possible association of pneumonitis with amiodarone therapy. Am Heart J. 1980;100:412–413.
    1. Sobol SM, Rakita L. Pneumonitis and pulmonary fibrosis associated with amiodarone treatment: a possible complication of a new antiarrhythmic drug. Circulation. 1982;65:819–824.
    1. Rotmensch HH, Belhassen B, Swanson BN, et al. Steady-state serum amiodarone concentrations: relationships with antiarrhythmic efficacy and toxicity. Ann Intern Med. 1984;101:462–469.
    1. Wolkove N, Baltzan M. Amiodarone pulmonary toxicity. Can Respir J. 2009;16:43–48.
    1. Martin WJ, Rosenow EC. Amiodarone pulmonary toxicity. Recognition and pathogenesis (Part 2) Chest. 1988;93:1242–1248.
    1. Jessurun GA, Crijns HJ. Amiodarone pulmonary toxicity. BMJ. 1997;314:619–620.
    1. Sunderji R, Kanji Z, Gin K. Pulmonary effects of low dose amiodarone: a review of the risks and recommendations for surveillance. Can J Cardiol. 2000;16:1435–1440.
    1. Goldschlager N, Epstein AE, Naccarelli GV, et al. A practical guide for clinicians who treat patients with amiodarone: 2007. Heart Rhythm. 2007;4:1250–1259.
    1. Polkey MI, Wilson PO, Rees PJ. Amiodarone pneumonitis: no safe dose. Respir Med. 1995;89:233–235.
    1. Ott MC, Khoor A, Leventhal JP, et al. Pulmonary toxicity in patients receiving low-dose amiodarone. Chest. 2003;123:646–651.
    1. Karnatovskaia LV, Festic E, Gajic O, et al. Prehospital amiodarone may increase the incidence of acute respiratory distress syndrome among patients at risk. J Crit Care. 2012;27:447–453.
    1. Sauler M, Gulati M. Newly recognized occupational and environmental causes of chronic terminal airways and parenchymal lung disease. Clin Chest Med. 2012;33:667–680.
    1. Jackevicius CA, Tom A, Essebag V, et al. Population-level incidence and risk factors for pulmonary toxicity associated with amiodarone. Am J Cardiol. 2011;108:705–710.
    1. Holt DW, Tucker GT, Jackson PR, Storey GC. Amiodarone pharmacokinetics. Am Heart J. 1983;106:840–847.
    1. Kratz A, Lewandrowski KB. Case records of the Massachusetts General Hospital. Weekly clinicopathological exercises. Normal reference laboratory values. N Engl J Med. 1998;339:1063–1072.
    1. Kennedy JI, Myers JL, Plumb VJ, Fulmer JD. Amiodarone pulmonary toxicity. Clinical, radiologic, and pathologic correlations. Arch Intern Med. 1987;147:50–55.
    1. Coudert B, Bailly F, Lombard JN, et al. Amiodarone pneumonitis. Bronchoalveolar lavage findings in 15 patients and review of the literature. Chest. 1992;102:1005–1012.
    1. Marchlinski FE, Gansler TS, Waxman HL, Josephson ME. Amiodarone pulmonary toxicity. Ann Intern Med. 1982;97:839–845.
    1. Camus P, Martin WJ, Rosenow EC. Amiodarone pulmonary toxicity. Clin Chest Med. 2004;25:65–75.
    1. Endoh Y, Hanai R, Uto K, et al. [Diagnostic usefulness of KL-6 measurements in patients with pulmonary complications after administration of amiodarone] J Cardiol. 2000;35:121–127.
    1. Singh S, Fletcher RD, Fisher S, et al. Congestive heart failure: survival trial of antiarrhythmic therapy (CHF STAT). The CHF STAT Investigators. Control Clin Trials. 1992;13:339–350.
    1. Sweidan AJ, Singh NK, Dang N, et al. Amiodarone-induced pulmonary toxicity—a frequently missed complication. Clin Med Insights Case Rep. 2016;9:91–94.
    1. Kuhlman JE, Teigen C, Ren H, et al. Amiodarone pulmonary toxicity: CT findings in symptomatic patients. Radiology. 1990;177:121–125.
    1. Zhu YY, Botvinick E, Dae M, et al. Gallium lung scintigraphy in amiodarone pulmonary toxicity. Chest. 1988;93:1126–1131.
    1. Jarand J, Lee A, Leigh R. Amiodaronoma: an unusual form of amiodarone-induced pulmonary toxicity. CMAJ. 2007;176:1411–1413.
    1. Azzam I, Tov N, Elias N, Naschitz JE. Amiodarone toxicity presenting as pulmonary mass and peripheral neuropathy: the continuing diagnostic challenge. Postgrad Med J. 2006;82:73–75.
    1. Halley A, Hugentobler A, Icard P, et al. Efficiency of 18F-FDG and 99mTc-depreotide SPECT in the diagnosis of malignancy of solitary pulmonary nodules. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2005;32:1026–1032.
    1. Ashrafian H, Davey P. Is amiodarone an underrecognized cause of acute respiratory failure in the ICU? Chest. 2001;120:275–282.
    1. Schwaiblmair M, Berghaus T, Haeckel T, et al. Amiodarone-induced pulmonary toxicity: an under-recognized and severe adverse effect? Clin Res Cardiol. 2010;99:693–700.
    1. Gleadhill IC, Wise RA, Schonfeld SA, et al. Serial lung function testing in patients treated with amiodarone: a prospective study. Am J Med. 1989;86:4–10.
    1. Reyes CV, Thompson KS, Jensen J. Multivesiculated macrophages: their implication in fine-needle aspiration cytology of lung mass lesions. Diagn. Cytopathol. 1998;19:98–101.
    1. Dusman RE, Stanton MS, Miles WM, et al. Clinical features of amiodarone-induced pulmonary toxicity. Circulation. 1990;82:51–59.
    1. Okayasu K, Takeda Y, Kojima J, et al. Amiodarone pulmonary toxicity: a patient with three recurrences of pulmonary toxicity and consideration of the probable risk for relapse. Intern Med. 2006;45:1303–1307.
    1. Zaher C, Hamer A, Peter T, Mandel W. Low-dose steroid therapy for prophylaxis of amiodarone-induced pulmonary infiltrates. N Engl J Med. 1983;308:779.
    1. Vernhet H, Bousquet C, Durand G, et al. Reversible amiodarone-induced lung disease: HRCT findings. Eur Radiol. 2001;11:1697–1703.
    1. Iskandar SB, Abi-Saleh B, Keith RL, et al. Amiodarone-induced alveolar hemorrhage. South Med J. 2006;99:383–387.
    1. Lewis JH, Ranard RC, Caruso A, et al. Amiodarone hepatotoxicity: prevalence and clinicopathologic correlations among 104 patients. Hepatology. 1989;9:679–685.
    1. Guigui B, Perrot S, Berry JP, et al. Amiodarone-induced hepatic phospholipidosis: a morphological alteration independent of pseudoalcoholic liver disease. Hepatology. 1988;8:1063–1068.
    1. Desai AD, Chun S, Sung RJ. The role of intravenous amiodarone in the management of cardiac arrhythmias. Ann Intern Med. 1997;127:294–303.
    1. Gluck N, Fried M, Porat R. Acute amiodarone liver toxicity likely due to ischemic hepatitis. Isr Med Assoc J. 2011;13:748–752.
    1. Lahbabi M. Acute hepatitis secondary to parenteral amiodarone does not preclude subsequent oral therapy. World J Hepatol. 2012;4:196.
    1. Rätz Bravo AE, Drewe J, Schlienger RG, et al. Hepatotoxicity during rapid intravenous loading with amiodarone: Description of three cases and review of the literature. Crit Care Med. 2005;33:128–34. discussion 245.
    1. Chen CC, Wu CC. Acute hepatotoxicity of intravenous amiodarone: case report and review of the literature. Am J Ther. 2016;23:e260–e263.
    1. Enseleit F, Wyss CA, Duru F, et al. Images in cardiovascular medicine. The blue man: amiodarone-induced skin discoloration. Circulation. 2006;113:e63.
    1. Collins P, Ferguson J. Narrow-band UVB (TL-01) phototherapy: an effective preventative treatment for the photodermatoses. Br J Dermatol. 1995;132:956–963.
    1. Jaworski K, Walecka I, Rudnicka L, et al. Cutaneous adverse reactions of amiodarone. Med Sci Monit. 2014;20:2369–2372.
    1. Dootson G, Byatt C. Amiodarone-induced vasculitis and a review of the cutaneous side-effects of amiodarone. Clin Exp Dermatol. 1994;19:422–424.
    1. Korantzopoulos P, Kyrlas K, Goudevenos JA. Amiodarone-induced hair loss: case report and review of the literature. QJM. 2015;108:325–327.
    1. Samanta A, Jones GR, Burden AC. Adverse reactions during treatment with amiodarone hydrochloride. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1983;287:503.
    1. Ahmad S. Amiodarone and reversible alopecia. Arch Intern Med. 1995;155:1106.
    1. Gasparich JP, Mason JT, Greene HL, et al. Amiodarone-associated epididymitis: drug-related epididymitis in the absence of infection. J Urol. 1985;133:971–972.
    1. Hamoud K, Kaneti J, Smailowitz Z, Lissmer L. Amiodarone-induced epididymitis. Report of 2 cases. Eur Urol. 1996;29:497–498.
    1. Sadek I, Biron P, Kus T. Amiodarone-induced epididymitis: report of a new case and literature review of 12 cases. Can J Cardiol. 1993;9:833–836.
    1. Kirkali Z. Recurrent bilateral amiodarone induced epididymitis. J Urol. 1999;162:808–809.
    1. Yamreudeewong W, McIntyre WW, Sun TJ, Ranelli PL. Bone marrow granulomas possibly associated with amiodarone. Pharmacotherapy. 2000;20:855–859.
    1. Mohamed T, Sanjay R, Sycheva T, et al. Amiodarone-associated bone marrow granulomas: a report of 2 cases and review of the literature. Int J Hematol. 2007;85:101–104.
    1. Mukhopadhyay S, Mukhopadhyay S, Abraham NZ, et al. Unexplained bone marrow granulomas: Is amiodarone the culprit? A report of 2 cases. World J Hepatol. 2004;75:110–112.
    1. Salouage I, Klouz A, Trabelsi S, et al. Neuro-psychiatric disorders induced by Amiodarone high levels (Cordarone) Therapie. 2007;62:357–359.
    1. Rajagopal S. Catatonic depression precipitated by amiodarone prescribed for atrial fibrillation. Ind J Psychiatry. 2015;57:105.
    1. Athwal H, Murphy G, Chun S. Amiodarone-induced delirium. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2003;11:696–697.
    1. Barry JJ, Franklin K. Amiodarone-induced delirium. Am J Psychiatry. 1999;156:1119.
    1. Vorperian VR, Havighurst TC, Miller S, January CT. Adverse effects of low dose amiodarone: a meta-analysis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1997;30:791–798.
    1. Flanagan EP, Harper CM, St Louis EK, et al. Amiodarone-associated neuromyopathy: a report of four cases: Letter to the Editor. Eur J Neurol. 2012;19:e50–e51.
    1. Carella F, Riva E, Morandi L, et al. Myopathy during amiodarone treatment: a case report. Ital J Neurol Sci. 1987;8:605–608.
    1. Narayana SK, Woods DR, Boos CJ. Management of amiodarone-related thyroid problems. Ther Adv Endocrinol Metab. 2011;2:115–126.
    1. Tsang W, Houlden RL. Amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis: a review. Can J Cardiol. 2009;25:421–424.
    1. Eskes SA, Wiersinga WM. Amiodarone and thyroid. Best Pract. Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2009;23:735–751.
    1. Han TS, Williams GR, Vanderpump MPJ. Benzofuran derivatives and the thyroid. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2009;70:2–13.
    1. Kurt IH, Yigit T, Karademir BM. Atrial fibrillation due to late amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis. Clin Drug Investig. 2008;28:527–531.
    1. O'Sullivan AJ. Amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis: left ventricular dysfunction is associated with increased mortality. Eur J Endocrinol. 2006;154:533–536.
    1. Bogazzi F, Bartalena L, Martino E. Approach to the patient with amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2010;95:2529–2535.
    1. Piga M, Cocco MC, Serra A, et al. The usefulness of 99mTc-sestaMIBI thyroid scan in the differential diagnosis and management of amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis. Eur J Endocrinol. 2008;159:423–429.
    1. Bogazzi F, Martino E, Dell'Unto E, et al. Thyroid color flow doppler sonography and radioiodine uptake in 55 consecutive patients with amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis. J Endocrinol Invest. 2003;26:635–640.
    1. Trip MD, Wiersinga W, Plomp TA. Incidence, predictability, and pathogenesis of amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis and hypothyroidism. Am J Med. 1991;91:507–511.
    1. Bongard V, Marc D, Philippe V, et al. Incidence rate of adverse drug reactions during long-term follow-up of patients newly treated with amiodarone. Am J Ther. 2006;13:315–319.
    1. Martino E, Aghini-Lombardi F, Bartalena L, et al. Enhanced susceptibility to amiodarone-induced hypothyroidism in patients with thyroid autoimmune disease. Arch Intern Med. 1994;154:2722–2726.
    1. Mazonson PD, Williams ML, Cantley LK, et al. Myxedema coma during long-term amiodarone therapy. Am J Med. 1984;77:751–754.
    1. Afshinnia F, Sheth N, Perlman R. Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone in association with amiodarone therapy: a case report and review of literature. Ren Fail. 2011;33:456–458.
    1. Pham L, Shaer AJ, Marnejon T. Hyponatremia—a rare but serious complication of amiodarone: a case report and review of the literature. Case Rep Nephrol Urol. 2013;3:46–50.
    1. Aslam MK, Gnaim C, Kutnick J, et al. Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion induced by amiodarone therapy. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 2004;27:831–832.
    1. Patel GP, Kasiar JB. Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone-induced hyponatremia associated with amiodarone. Pharmacotherapy. 2002;22:649–651.
    1. Mulloy AL, Caruana RJ. Hyponatremic emergencies. Med Clin North Am. 1995;79:155–168.

Source: PubMed

Sponsorer og samarbejdspartnere

Medicinske tilstande

Narkotikainterventioner

3
Abonner