Motor imagery and action observation: cognitive tools for rehabilitation

Th Mulder, Th Mulder

Abstract

Rehabilitation, for a large part may be seen as a learning process where old skills have to be re-acquired and new ones have to be learned on the basis of practice. Active exercising creates a flow of sensory (afferent) information. It is known that motor recovery and motor learning have many aspects in common. Both are largely based on response-produced sensory information. In the present article it is asked whether active physical exercise is always necessary for creating this sensory flow. Numerous studies have indicated that motor imagery may result in the same plastic changes in the motor system as actual physical practice. Motor imagery is the mental execution of a movement without any overt movement or without any peripheral (muscle) activation. It has been shown that motor imagery leads to the activation of the same brain areas as actual movement. The present article discusses the role that motor imagery may play in neurological rehabilitation. Furthermore, it will be discussed to what extent the observation of a movement performed by another subject may play a similar role in learning. It is concluded that, although the clinical evidence is still meager, the use of motor imagery in neurological rehabilitation may be defended on theoretical grounds and on the basis of the results of experimental studies with healthy subjects.

References

    1. Allard TA, Clark SA, Jenkins WM, Merzenich MM. Reorganization of somatosensory area 3B representations in adult owl monkeys after digital syndactyly. J Neurophysiol. 1991;66:1048–1058.
    1. Bakker FC, Boschker MSJ, Chung T. Changes in muscular activity while imagining weight lifting using stimulus or response propositions. J Sport Exercise Psychol. 1996;18:313–324.
    1. Benedetti F. Recovery of tactile perception following the simulated amputation of one finger. Perception. 1991;20:687–692.
    1. Boschker MSJ (2001) Action-based imagery: on the nature of mentally imagined motor actions. Free University Doctoral thesis, Amsterdam
    1. Botvinick M, Cohen J. Rubber hands “feel” touch that eyes see. Nature. 1998;391:756.
    1. Buccino G, Binkofski F, Fink GR, Fadiga L, Fogassi L, Gallese V, Seitz RJ, Zilles K, Rizzolattii G, Freund HJ. Action observation activates premotor and parietal areas in a somatotopic manner: an fMRI study. Eur J Neurosci. 2001;13:400–404.
    1. Buccino G, Lui F, Canessa N, Patteri I, Lagravinese G, Benuzzi F, Poro CA, Rizzolati G. Neural circuits involved in the recognition of actions performed by nonconspecifics: an fMRI study. J Cogn Neurosci. 2004;16:114–126.
    1. Buccino G, Solodkin A, Small SL. Functions of the mirror neuron system: implications for neurorehabilitation. Cognit Behav Neurol. 2006;19:55–63.
    1. Buonomano D, Merzenich MM. Cortical plasticity: from synapses to maps. Annu Rev Neurosci. 1998;21:149–186.
    1. Butler AJ, Page SJ (2006) Mental practice with motor imagery: evidence for motor recovery and cortical reorganization after stroke. Archi Phys Med Rehabil 87 (Suppl 12) 2: 2–11
    1. Braun SM, Beurskens AJ, Borm PJ, Schack T, Wade DT. The effects of mental practice in stroke rehabilitaton: a systematic review. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2006;87:842–852.
    1. Brasil-Neto JP, Cohen LG, Pascual-Leone A, Jabir FK, Wall RT, Hallett M. Rapid reversible modulation of human motor outputs after transient deafferentation of the forearm: a study with transcranial magnetic stimulation. Neurology. 1992;42:1302–1306.
    1. Brasil-Neto JP, Valls-Solé J, Pascual-Leone A, Cammarota A, Amassian VE, Cracco R, Maccabee P, Cracco J, Hallett M, Cohen LG. Rapid modulation of human cortical motor outputs following ischaemic nerve block. Brain. 1993;116:511–525.
    1. Brass M, Bekkering H, Wohlschlaeger A, Prinz W. Compatibility between observed and executed finger movements: comparing symbolic, spatial and imitative cues. Brain Cogn. 2000;44:124–143.
    1. Cicinelli P, Marconi B, Zaccagnini M, Pasqualetti P, Filipi MM, Rossini PM. Imaged-induced cortical excitability changes in stroke: a transcranial magnetic stimulation study. Cerebral Cortex. 2006;16:247–253.
    1. Cincotta M, Tozzi F, Zaccara G, Borgheresi A, Lori A, Cosottini M, Cantello R. Motor imagery in a locked in patient: evidence from transcranial magnetic stimulation. Ital J Neurol Sci. 1999;20:37–41.
    1. Clark LV. Effect of mental practice on the development of a certain motor skill. Res Quart. 1960;31:560–569.
    1. Classen J, Liepert J, Wise SP, Hallett M, Cohen LG. Rapid plasticity of human cortical movement representation induced by practice. J Neurophysiol. 1998;79:1117–1123.
    1. Corbin C. Effects of mental practice on skill development after controlled practice. In: Morgan W, editor. Ergogenic aids and muscular performance. New York: Academic Press; 1972. pp. 93–118.
    1. Crosbie JH, McDonough SM, Gilmore DH, Wiggam MI. The adjunctive role of mental practice in the rehabilitation of the upper limb after hemiplegic stroke: a pilot study. Clin Rehabil. 2004;18:60–68.
    1. Cumming J, Hall C. Deliberate imagery practice: the development of imagery skills in competitive athletes. J Sports Sci. 2000;20:137–145.
    1. Currie G, Ravenscroft I. Mental simulation and motor imagery. Philos Sci. 1997;64:161–180.
    1. Decety J, Grèzes J. The power of simulation: imagining one’s own and others behavior. Brain Res. 2006;1079:4–14.
    1. Decety J, Jeannerod M, Durozard D, Baverel G. Central activation of autonomic effectors during mental simulation of motor actions. J Physiol. 1993;461:549–563.
    1. Dechent P, Merboldt KD, Frahm J. Is the human primary motor cortex involved in motor imagery? Cogn Brain Res. 2004;19:138–144.
    1. De Jong BM, Coert JH, Stenekes MW, Leenders KL, Paans AMJ, Nicolai JPA. Cerebral reorganisation of human hand movement following dynamic immobilisation. Neuroreport. 2004;14:1693–1696.
    1. De Lange FP, Hagoort P, Toni I. Neural topography and content of movement representations. J Cogn Neurosci. 2005;17:97–112.
    1. De Vries SJ, Mulder Th. Motor imagery and Stroke Rehabilitation: a critical discussion. J Rehabil Sci. 2007;39:5–13.
    1. Dickstein R, Dunsky A, Marcovitz E. Motor imagery for gait rehabilitation in post-stroke hemiparesis. Phys Ther. 2004;84:1167–1177.
    1. Dijkerman HC, Ietswaart M, Johnston M, MacWalter RS. Does motor imagery training improve hand function in chronic stroke patients? A pilot study. Clin Rehabil. 2004;18:538–549.
    1. Di Pellegrino G, Fadiga L, Fogassi L, Gallese V, Rizzolatti G. Understanding motor events: a neurophysiological study. Experimental. Brain Res. 1992;91:176–180.
    1. Driskell JE, Copper C, Moran A. Does mental practice enhance performance? J Sport Psychol. 1994;79:481–492.
    1. Edeline JM, Pham P, Weinberger NM. Rapid development of learning induced receptive field plasticity in the auditory cortex. Behav Neurosci. 1993;107:539–551.
    1. Ehrsson H, Geyer S, Naito E. Imagery of voluntary movement of fingers, toes, and tongue activates corresponding bodypart specific motor representations. J Neurophysiol. 2003;90:3304–3316.
    1. Fadiga L, Buccino G, Craighero L, Fogassi L, Gallese V, Pavesi G. Corticospinal excitability is specifically modulated by motor imagery: a magnetic stimulation study. Neuropsychologia. 1999;37:147–158.
    1. Fadiga L, Fogassi L, Pavesi G, Rizzilatti G. Motor facilitation during action observation: a magnetic stimulation study. J Neurophysiol. 1995;73:492–502.
    1. Fairweather MM, Sidaway B. Ideokinetic imagery as a postural development technique. Res Quart Exercise Sport. 1993;64:385–392.
    1. Fansler CL, Poff CL, Shepard KF. Effects of mental practice on balance in elderly women. Phys Ther. 1985;65:1332–1338.
    1. Feltz DL, Landers DM. The effects of mental practice on motor skill learning and performance: a meta-analysis. J Sport Psychol. 1983;5:25–57.
    1. Fiori M, Tinazzi M, Aglioti SM. Selective impairment of hand mental rotation in patients with focal hand dystonia. Brain. 2006;129:47–54.
    1. Flor H. Cortical reorganisation and chronic pain: implications for rehabilitation. J Rehabil Med. 2003;35:66–72.
    1. Gallese V. Embodied simulation: from neurons to phenomenal experience. Phenomenol Cogn Sci. 2005;4:23–48.
    1. Gallese V, Fadiga L, Fogassi L, Rizzolatti G. Action recognition in the premotor cortex. Brain. 1996;119:593–609.
    1. Gallese V, Goldman A. Mirror neurons and the simulation theory of mind-reading. Trends Cogn Sci. 1998;12:493–501.
    1. Gallese V, Lakoff G. The Brain’s concepts: the role of the sensory-motor system in conceptual knowledge. Cogn Neuropsychol. 2005;22:455–479.
    1. Gaser C, Schlaug G. Brain structures differ between musicians and non musicians. J Neurosci. 2003;23:9240–9245.
    1. Gerardin E, Sirigu A, Lehericy S, Poline JB, Gaymard B, Marsault C. Partially overlapping neural networks for real and imagined hand movements. Cereb Cortex. 2000;10:1093–1104.
    1. Grezes J, Decety J. Functional anatomy of execution, mental simulation, observation and verb generation of action: a meta-analysis. Hum Brain Mapp. 2001;12:1–19.
    1. Gibble PL, Scott SH. Overlap of internal models in motor cortex for mechanical loads during reaching. Nature. 2002;417:938–941.
    1. Grush R. The emulation theory of representation: motor control, imagery and perception. Behav Brain Sci. 2004;27:377–442.
    1. Hale BD. The effects of internal and external imagery on muscular and ocular concomitants. J Sport Exercise Psychol. 1982;4:379–387.
    1. Hallett M, Fieldman J, Cohen LG, Sadato N, Pascual-Leone A. Involvement of primary motor cortex in motor imagery and mental practice. Behav Brain Sci. 1994;17:210.
    1. Hanakawa T, Immisch I, Toma K, Dimyan M, Van Gelderen P, Hallett M. Functional properties of brain areas associated with motor execution and imagery. J Neurophysiol. 2003;89:989–1002.
    1. Hochberg LR, Serruya MD, Friehs GM, Mukand JA, Saleh M, Caplan AC, Branner A, Chen D, Penn RD, Donoghue JP. Neuronal ensemble control of prosthetic devices by a human with tetraplegia. Nature. 2006;442:164–171.
    1. Jacobson E. Electrophysiology of mental activities. Am J Psychol. 1932;44:677–694.
    1. Jackson PL, Doyon J, Richards CL, Malouin F. The efficacy of combined physical and mental practice in the learning of a foot-sequence task after stroke: a case report. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2004;18:106–111.
    1. Jackson PL, LaFleur MF, Malouin F, Richards C. Potential role of mental practice using motor imagery in neurologic rehabilitation. Arch Physi Med Rehabil. 2001;82:1133–1141.
    1. Jeannerod M. The representing brain: neural correlates of motor intention and imagery. Behav Brain Sci. 1994;17:187–245.
    1. Jeannerod M. Neural simulation of action: a unifying mechanism for motor cognition. NeuroImage. 2001;14:103–109.
    1. Johnson SH. Imagining the impossible: intact motor representations in hemiplegics. Neuroreport. 2000;11:729–732.
    1. Jowdy DP, Harris DV. Muscular responses during mental imagery as a function of motor skill level. J Sport Exercise Psychol. 1990;12:91–201.
    1. Kimberley TJ, Khandekar G, Skraba LL, Spencer JA, Van Gorp EA, Walker SR. Neural substrates for motor imagery in severe hemiparesis. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2006;20:268–277.
    1. Kolb B, Whishaw IQ. Brain plasticity and behavior. Annu Rev Psychol. 1998;49:43–64.
    1. Lackner JR. Some proprioceptive influences on the perceptual representation of body shape and orientation. Brain. 1988;111:281–297.
    1. Lacourse MG, Turner JA, Randolph-Orr E, Schandler SL, Cohen MJ. Cerebral and cerebellar sensorimotor plasticity following motor imagery-based mental practice of a sequential movement. J Rehabil Res Devel. 2004;41:505–524.
    1. Li S, Kamper DG, Stevens JA, Rymer WZ. The effect of motor imagery on spinal segmental excitability. J Neurosci. 2004;24:9674–9680.
    1. Lim VK, Polych MA, Holländer A, Byblow WD, Kirk IJ, Hamm JP. Kinesthetic but not visual imagery assists in normalizing the CNV in Parkinson’s disease. Clin Neurophysiol. 2006;117:2308–2314.
    1. Linden CA, Uhley JE, Smith D, Bush MA. The effects of mental practice on walking balance in an elderly population. Occupat Ther J Res. 1989;9:155–169.
    1. Liu KP, Chan CC, Lee TM, Hui-Chan CW. Mental imagery for promoting relearning for people after stroke: a randomized controlled trial. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2004;85:1403–1408.
    1. Liu L, Ionnides AA. MEG study of short term plasticity following multiple digit frequency training in humans. Brain Topography. 2005;16:239–243.
    1. Livesay JR, Samras MR. Covert neuromuscular activity of the dominant forearm during visualization of a motor task. Percept Motor Skills. 1998;86:371–374.
    1. Lledo PN, Alonso M, Grubb MS. Adult neurogenesis and functional plasticity in neural circuits. Nature Rev Neurosci. 2006;7:179–193.
    1. Lotze M, Cohen LG. Volition and imagery in neurorehabilitation. Cogn Behav Neurol. 2006;19:135–140.
    1. Lotze M, Halsband U. Motor imagery. J Physiol. 2006;99:386–395.
    1. Lotze M, Montoya P, Erb M, Hulsmann E, Flor H, Klose U. Activation of cortical and cerebellar motor areas during executed and imagined hand movements: an fMRI study. J Cogn Neurosci. 1999;11:491–501.
    1. Maeda F, Kleiner-Fisman G, Pascual-Leone A. Motion facilitation while observing hand actions: specificity of the effect and role of observers orientation. J Neurophysiol. 2002;87:1329–1335.
    1. Magill RA. Motor learning: concepts and applications. New York: McGraw Hill; 1998.
    1. Magnee MJCM, Stekelenburg JJ, Kemner C, De Gelder B. Similar facial electromyographic responses to faces, voices and body expressions. Neuroreport. 2007;18:369–372.
    1. Malouin F, Richards C, Jackson PL, Dumas F, Doyon J. Brain activation during motor imagery of locomotor related tasks: a PET study. Hum Brain Mapp. 2003;19:47–62.
    1. Malouin F, Richards CL, Doyon J, Desrosiers J, Belleville S. Training mobility tasks after stroke with combined mental and physical practice: a feasibility study. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2004;18:66–75.
    1. Mattar AG, Gribble PL. Motor learning by observation. Neuron. 2005;46:153–160.
    1. Meister IG, Krings T, Foltys H, Boroojerdi B, Muller M, Topper R, Thron A. Playing piano in the mind — an fMRI study on music imagery and performance in pianists. Cogn Brain Res. 2004;19:219–228.
    1. Merzenich MM, Kaas JH, Wall J, Nelson RJ, Sur M, Felleman D. Topographical reorganization of somatosensory cortical areas 3b and 1 in adult monkeys following restricted deafferentation. Neuroscience. 1983;8:33–55.
    1. Merzenich MM, Jenkins WM. Reorganization of cortical representations of the hand following alterations of skin inputs induced by nerve injury, skin island transfers and experience. J Hand Ther. 1993;6:89–104.
    1. Mulder Th, Geurts ACH. Recovery of motor skill following nervous system disorders: a behavioral emphasis. Bailliere’s Clin Neurol. 1993;2:1–13.
    1. Mulder Th, Hochstenbach J. Motor control and learning: implications for neurological rehabilitation. In: Greenwood RJ, editor. Handbook of neurological rehabilitation. New York: Psychology Press; 2003. pp. 143–157.
    1. Mulder Th, Hochstenbach J, Van Heuvelen MJG, Den Otter AR. Motor imagery: the relationship between age and imagery capacity. Hum Mov Sci. 2007;26:203–211.
    1. Mulder Th, Zijlstra S, Zijlstra W, Hochstenbach J. The role of motor imagery in learning a totally novel movement. Exper Brain Res. 2004;154:211–217.
    1. Mulder Th, Zijlstra S, De Vries S. Observation, imagination and execution of an effortful movement: more evidence for a central explanation of motor imagery. Exper Brain Res. 2005;163:344–351.
    1. Naito E, Kochiyama T, Kitada R, Nakamura S, Matsumura M, Yonekura Y, Sadato N. Internally simulated movement sensations during motor imagery activate cortical motor areas and the cerebellum. J Neurosci. 2002;22:3683–3691.
    1. Nelles G, Jentzen W, Jueptner M, Müller S, Diener HC. Arm training induced brain plasticity in stroke, studied with serial positron emission tomography. NeuroImage. 2001;13:1146–1154.
    1. Noel R. The effect of visuo-motor behavioural rehearsal on tennis performance. J Sport Psychol. 1980;2:221–226.
    1. Page SJ. Imagery improves upper extremity motor function in chronic stroke patients: a pilot study. Occup Ther J Res. 2000;20:200–215.
    1. Page SJ, Levine P, Sisto SA, Johnston MV. Mental practice combined with physical practice for upper-limb motor deficit in subacute stroke. Phys Ther. 2001;81:1455–1462.
    1. Page SJ, Levine P, Leonard AC. Effects of mental practice on affected limb use and function in chronic stroke. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2005;86:399–402.
    1. Parsons LM. Integrating cognitive psychology, neurology and neuroimaging. Acta Psychol. 2001;107:155–181.
    1. Parsons LM, Fox PT, Downs JH, Glass T, Hirsch TB, Martin CC. Use of implicit motor imagery for visual shape discrimination as revealed by PET. Nature. 1995;375:54–58.
    1. Pascual-Leone A, Dang N, Cohen LG, Brasil-Neto J, Cammarota A, Hallett M. Modulation of motor repsonse evokedby transcranial magnetic stimulation during the acquisition of new fine motor skills. J Neurophysiol. 1995;74:1034–1045.
    1. Pelphrey KA, Mitchell TV, McKeown MJ, Goldstein J, Allison T, McCarthy G. Brain activity evoked by the perception of human walking: controlling for meaningful coherent motion. J Neurosci. 2003;23:6819–6825.
    1. Pfurtscheller G, Leeb R, Keinrath C, Friedman D, Neuper C, Guger C, Slater M. Walking through thought. Brain Res. 2006;1071:145–152.
    1. Porro CA, Cettolo V, Francescato MP, Baraldi P. Ipsilateral involvement of primary motor cortex during motor imagery. Eur J Neurosci. 2000;12:3059–3063.
    1. Porro CA, Francescato MP, Cettolo V, Diamond ME, Baraldi P, Zuiani C. Primary motor and sensory cortex activation during motor performance and motor imagery: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study. J Neurosci. 1996;16:7688–7698.
    1. Rizzolatti G. The mirror neuron system and imitation. In: Hurley S, Chater N, editors. Perspectives on imitation: from cognitive neuroscience to social science. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press; 2005. pp. 55–77.
    1. Rosenbaum DA. Motor control. New York: Academic Press; 1991.
    1. Rossini PM, Caautti C, Pauri F, Baron JC. Post-stroke plastic reorganisation in the brain. Lancet Neurol. 2003;2:493–502.
    1. Roth M, Decety J, Raybaudi M, Massarelli R, Delon-Martin C, Segebarth C. Possible involvement of primary motor cortex in mentally simulated movement: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Neuroreport. 1996;7:1280–1284.
    1. Ruby P, Decety J. What you belief versus what you think they believe: a neuroimaging study of conceptual perspective taking. Eur J Neurosci. 2003;17:2475–2480.
    1. Salmon DP, Butters N. Neurobiology of skill and habit learning. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 1995;5:184–190.
    1. Sanes JN, Suner S, Lanod JF, Donoghue JP. Rapid reorganization of adult rat motor cortex somatic representation after motor nerve injury. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1988;85:2003–2007.
    1. Schmidt RA, Lee TD. Motor control and learning: a behavioral approach. Champaign: Human Kinetics Publ; 2005.
    1. Shadmehr R, Mussa-Ivaldi FA. Adaptive representation of dynamics during learning of a motor task. J Neurosci. 1994;14:3208–3224.
    1. Sharma N, Pomeroy VM, Baron JC. Motor imagery: a backdoor to the motor system after stroke? Stroke. 2006;37:1941–1952.
    1. Sirigu A, Cohen L, Duhamel JR, Pillon B, Dubois B, Agid Y, Pierrot-Deseilligny C. Congruent unilateral impairments for real and imagined hand movements. Neuroreport. 1995;6:997–1001.
    1. Sirigu A, Duhamel JR, Cohen L, Pillon B, Dubois B, Agid Y. The mental representation of hand movements after parietal cortex damage. Science. 1996;273:1564–1568.
    1. Spiegler A, Graimann B, Pfurtscheller G. Phase coupling between different motor areas during tongue-movement imagery. Neurosci Lett. 2004;369:50–54.
    1. Spitzer M. The Mind within the Net: models of learning, thinking and acting. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press; 1999.
    1. Stephan KM, Fink GR, Passingham RE, Silbersweig D, Ceballos-Baum AO, Frith CD, Frackowiak RS. Functional anatomy of the mental representation of upper extremity movements in healthy subjects. J Neurophysiol. 1995;73:373–386.
    1. Stevens JA, Stoykov ME. Using motor imagery in the rehabilitation of hemiparesis. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2003;84:1090–1092.
    1. Stinear CM, Byblow WD, Steyvers M, Levin O, Swinnen SP. Kinesthetic, but nog visual, motor imagery modulates corticomotor excitability. Exper Brain Res. 2006;168:157–164.
    1. Stippich C, Ochmann H, Sartor K. Somatotopic mapping of the primary sensorimotor cortex during motor imagery and motor execution by functional magnetic resonance imaging. Neurosci Lett. 2002;331:50–54.
    1. Tai YF, Scherfler C, Brooks DJ, Sawamoto N, Castiello U. The human motor premotor cortex is “mirror” only for biological actions. Curr Biol. 2004;14:117–120.
    1. Thobois S, Dominey PF, Decety J, Pollak P, Gregoire MC, Le Bars D, Broussolle E. Motor imagery in normal subjects and in asymmetrical Parkinson’s disease. Neurology. 2000;55:996–1002.
    1. Urgesi C, Candidi M, Fabbro F, Romani M, Aglioti SM. Motor facilitation during action observation: topographic mapping of the target muscle and influence of the onlooker’s posture. Eur J Neurosci. 2006;23:2522–2530.
    1. Vandell RA, Davis R, Clugston HA. The function of mental practice in the acquisition of motor skills. J Gen Psychol. 1943;29:243–250.
    1. Van Mier H, Tempel LW, Perlmutter JS, Raichle ME, Petersen SE. Changes in brain activity during motor learning measured with PET: effects of hand of performance and practice. J Neurophysiol. 1998;80:2177–2199.
    1. Watkins KE, Strafella AE, Paus T. Seeing and hearing speech excites the motor system involved in speech production. Neuropsychologia. 2003;4:989–994.
    1. Wehner T, Vogt S, Stadler M. Task-specific EMG characteristics during mental training. Psychol Res. 1984;46:389–401.
    1. Weiss T, Hansen E, Beyer L, et al. Activation during mental practice in stroke patients. Int J Psychophysiol. 1994;17:91–100.
    1. Wolpaw JR, Tennissen AM. Activity-dependent spinal cord plasticity in health and disease. Ann Rev Neurosci. 2001;24:807–843.
    1. Wolpert DM, Ghahramani Z, Flanagan JR. Perspectives and problems in motor learning. Trends Cogn Sci. 2001;5:487–494.
    1. Yaguez L, Canavan AG, Lange HW, Homberg V. Motor learning by imagery is differently affected in Parkinson’s and Huntington’s diseases. Behav Brain Res. 1999;102:115–127.
    1. Yue G, Cole KJ. Strength increases from the motor program: comparison of training with maximal voluntary and imagined muscle contractions. J Neurophysiol. 1992;67:1114–1123.
    1. Yoo E, Park E, Chung B. Mental practice effect on line-tracing accuracy in persons with hemiparetic stroke: a preliminary study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2001;82:1213–1218.
    1. Zanette G, Manganotti P, Fiaschi A, Tamburin S. Modulation of motor cortex excitability after upper limb immobilization. Clin Neurophysiol. 2004;115:1264–1275.
    1. Zijdewind I, Toering ST, Bessem B, Van der Laan O, Diercks RL. Effects of imagery motor training on torque production of ankle plantar flexor muscles. Muscle Nerve. 2003;28:168–173.

Source: PubMed

Sponsorit ja yhteistyökumppanit

Sairaudet

Huumeiden interventiot

3
Tilaa