A review of experimental and natural infections of animals with monkeypox virus between 1958 and 2012

Scott Parker, R Mark Buller, Scott Parker, R Mark Buller

Abstract

Monkeypox virus (MPXV) was discovered in 1958 during an outbreak in an animal facility in Copenhagen, Denmark. Since its discovery, MPXV has revealed a propensity to infect and induce disease in a large number of animals within the mammalia class from pan-geographical locations. This finding has impeded the elucidation of the natural host, although the strongest candidates are African squirrels and/or other rodents. Experimentally, MPXV can infect animals via a variety of multiple different inoculation routes; however, the natural route of transmission is unknown and is likely to be somewhat species specific. In this review we have attempted to compile and discuss all published articles that describe experimental or natural infections with MPXV, dating from the initial discovery of the virus through to the year 2012. We further discuss the comparative disease courses and pathologies of the host species.

Keywords: aerosol; animals; infection; intrabronchial; intradermal; intramuscular; intranasal; intratracheal; intravenous; outbreak; primates; subcutaneous.

Figures

Figure 1. Four disease biomarkers are shown…
Figure 1. Four disease biomarkers are shown following an intravenous 107 PFU Congo Basin (Z79) challenge in Macaca mulatta and Macaca fascicularis
Initial detection of fever, vDNA in blood and lesion appearance are shown. The ranges of euthanasia/death are also shown (see Tables 1 & 3 for more details). vDNA: Viral DNA.
Figure 2. Four disease biomarkers are shown…
Figure 2. Four disease biomarkers are shown following five different respiratory challenges with 106 PFU of monkeypox virus (Congo Basin) in Macaca fascicularis
Initial detection of fever, vDNA in blood and the lesion appearance are shown. The ranges of euthanasia/death are also shown. Data is taken from Table 4. BMAD: Bronchoscope-microsprayer aerosol delivery; ib.: Intrabronchial; in.: Intranasal; it.: Intratracheal; vDNA: Viral DNA.

References

    1. Wenner HA, Kamitsuka P, Macasaet F, Kidd P. Pathogenesis of monkey pox. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (Bethesda) 1968;7:40–44.
    1. Wenner HA, Macasaet FD, Kamitsuka PS, Kidd P. Monkey pox. I. Clinical, virologic and immunologic studies. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1968;87(3):551–566.
    1. Shchelkunov SN, Totmenin AV, Babkin IV, et al. Human monkeypox and smallpox viruses: genomic comparison. FEBS Lett. 2001;509(1):66–70.
    1. Carroll DS, Emerson GL, Li Y, et al. Chasing Jenner’s vaccine: revisiting cowpox virus classification. PLoS One. 2011;6(8):e23086.
    1. Esposito JJ, Knight JC. Orthopoxvirus DNA: a comparison of restriction profiles and maps. Virology. 1985;143(1):230–251.
    1. Chen N, Li G, Liszewski MK, et al. Virulence differences between monkeypox virus isolates from West Africa and the Congo Basin. Virology. 2005;340(1):46–63.
    1. Likos AM, Sammons SA, Olson VA, et al. A tale of two clades: monkeypox viruses. J. Gen. Virol. 2005;86(Pt 10):2661–2672.
    1. Breman JG, Nakano JH, Coffi E, Godfrey H, Gautun JC. Human poxvirus disease after smallpox eradication. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1977;26(2):273–281.
    1. Marennikova SS, Ladnyj ID, Ogorodinikova ZI, Shelukhina EM, Maltseva NN. Identification and study of a poxvirus isolated from wild rodents in Turkmenia. Arch. Virol. 1978;56(1–2):7–14.
    1. Marennikova SS, Seluhina EM, Mal’ceva NN, Ladnyj ID. Poxviruses isolated from clinically ill and asymptomatically infected monkeys and a chimpanzee. Bull. World Health Organ. 1972;46(5):613–620.
    1. Sehgal CL, Ray SN. Survery of Rhesus monkeys (Macaca Mulatta) for haemagglutination-inhibition antibody against vaccinia/variola and monkey pox viruses. J. Comm. Dis. 1974;6(3):233–235.
    1. Arita I, Henderson DA. Smallpox and monkeypox in non-human primates. Bull. World Health Organ. 1968;39(2):277–283.
    1. Parker S, Nuara A, Buller RM, Schultz DA. Human monkeypox: an emerging zoonotic disease. Future Microbiol. 2007;2(1):17–34.

    1. Breman JG, Bernadou J, Nakano JH. Poxvirus in West African nonhuman primates: serological survey results. Bull. World Health Organ. 1977;55(5):605–612. Serological surveys revealing several species of nonhuman primates (NHPs) that presented with evidence of infection.

    1. Gispen R, Brand-Saathof BB, Hekker AC. Monkeypox-specific antibodies in human and simian sera from the Ivory Coast and Nigeria. Bull. World Health Organ. 1976;53(4):355–360.
    1. Jezek Z, Fenner F. Human Monkeypox. Karger, Basel, Switzerland: 1988.

    1. Khodakevich L, Jezek Z, Kinzanzka K. Isolation of monkeypox virus from wild squirrel infected in nature. Lancet. 1986;1(8472):98–99. First and only isolation of monkeypox virus from a wild animal.

    1. Khodakevich L, Jezek Z, Messinger D. Monkeypox virus: ecology and public health significance. Bull. World Health Organ. 1988;66(6):747–752.
    1. Khodakevich L, Szczeniowski M, Manbu-Ma-Disu, et al. The role of squirrels in sustaining monkeypox virus transmission. Trop. Geogr. Med. 1987;39(2):115–122.
    1. Hutin YJ, Williams RJ, Malfait P, et al. Outbreak of human monkeypox, Democratic Republic of Congo, 1996 to 1997. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2001;7(3):434–438.

    1. Hutson CL, Lee KN, Abel J, et al. Monkeypox zoonotic associations: insights from laboratory evaluation of animals associated with the multi-state US outbreak. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2007;76(4):757–768. Details of animals infected in the 2003 US outbreak.

    1. Parker S, Chen NG, Foster S, et al. Evaluation of disease and viral biomarkers as triggers for therapeutic intervention in respiratory mousepox – an animal model of smallpox. Antiviral Res. 2012;94(1):44–53.
    1. Earl PL, Americo JL, Wyatt LS, et al. Immunogenicity of a highly attenuated MVA smallpox vaccine and protection against monkeypox. Nature. 2004;428(6979):182–185.

    1. Goff AJ, Chapman J, Foster C, et al. A novel respiratory model of infection with monkeypox virus in cynomolgus macaques. J. Virol. 2011;85(10):4898–4909. Bronchoscope-microsprayer aerosol delivery challenge of NHPs.

    1. Hutson CL, Carroll DS, Gallardo-Romero N, et al. Monkeypox disease transmission in an experimental setting: prairie dog animal model. PLoS One. 2011;6(12):e28295.
    1. Stabenow J, Buller RM, Schriewer J, West C, Sagartz JE, Parker S. A mouse model of lethal infection for evaluating prophylactics and therapeutics against monkeypox virus. J. Virol. 2010;84(8):3909–3920.

    1. Americo JL, Moss B, Earl PL. Identification of wild-derived inbred mouse strains highly susceptible to monkeypox virus infection for use as small animal models. J. Virol. 2010;84(16):8172–8180. Intranasal comparison challenges of NHPs with West Africa and Congo Basin strains.

    1. Hutson CL, Abel JA, Carroll DS, et al. Comparison of West African and Congo Basin monkeypox viruses in BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice. PLoS One. 2010;5(1):e8912.
    1. Sbrana E, Xiao SY, Newman PC, Tesh RB. Comparative pathology of North American and central African strains of monkeypox virus in a ground squirrel model of the disease. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2007;76(1):155–164.
    1. Hutson CL, Olson VA, Carroll DS, et al. A prairie dog animal model of systemic orthopoxvirus disease using West African and Congo Basin strains of monkeypox virus. J. Gen. Virol. 2009;90(Pt 2):323–333.
    1. Hutson CL, Carroll DS, Self J, et al. Dosage comparison of Congo Basin and West African strains of monkeypox virus using a prairie dog animal model of systemic orthopoxvirus disease. Virology. 2010;402(1):72–82.
    1. Saijo M, Ami Y, Suzaki Y, et al. Virulence and pathophysiology of the Congo Basin and West African strains of monkeypox virus in non-human primates. J. Gen. Virol. 2009;90(Pt 9):2266–2271.
    1. Esposito JJ, Fenner F, Poxvirus . Fields Virology. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; NY, USA: 2001. pp. 2885–2921.

    1. Von Magnus P, Andersen EK, Petersen KB, Birch-Andersen A. A pox-like disease in cynomolgus monkeys. Acta Path. Micro. Scand. 1959;46(2):156–176. Discovery of monkeypox virus.

    1. Sauer RM, Prier JE, Buchanan RS, Creamer AA, Fegley HC. Studies on a pox disease of monkeys. I. Pathology. Am. J. Vet. Res. 1960;21:377–380.
    1. Mcconnell SJ, Herman YF, Mattson DE, Erickson L. Monkey pox disease in irradiated cynomologous monkeys. Nature. 1962;195:1128–1129.
    1. Prier JE, Sauer RM. A pox disease of monkeys. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 1960;85:951–959.
    1. Gispen R, Verlinde JD, Zwart P. Histopathological and virological studies on monkeypox. Arch. Gesamte Virusforsch. 1967;21(2):205–216.
    1. Peters JC. An epizootic of monkeypox at Rotterdam Zoo. Int. Zoo Yearbook. 1966;6(1):274–275.
    1. CDC Update: multistate outbreak of monkeypox – Illinois, Indiana, and Wisconsin, 2003. Mort. Morb. Wkly Rep. 2003;52(23):537–540.
    1. Prier JE, Sauer RM, Malsberger RG, Sillaman JM. Studies on a pox disease of monkeys. II. Isolation of the etiologic agent. Am. J. Vet. Res. 1960;21:381–384.
    1. Mcconnell S, Herman YF, Mattson DE, Huxsoll DL, Lang CM, Yager RH. Protection of rhesus monkeys against monkeypox by vaccinia virus immunization. Am. J. Vet. Res. 1964;25:192–195.
    1. Rouhandeh H, Engler R, Taher M, Fouad A, Sells LL. Properties of monkey pox virus. Arch. Gesamte Virusforsch. 1967;20(3):363–373.
    1. Wenner HA, Bolano CR, Cho CT, Kamitsuka PS. Studies on the pathogenesis of monkey pox. 3 Histopathological lesions and sites of immunofluorescence. Arch. Gesamte Virusforsch. 1969;27(2):179–197.
    1. Wenner HA, Cho CT, Bolano CR, Kamitsuka PS. Studies on the pathogenesis of monkey pox. II. Dose-response and virus dispersion. Arch. Gesamte Virusforsch. 1969;27(2):166–178.
    1. Cho CT, Bolano CR, Kamitsuka PS, Wenner HA. Methisazone and monkey pox virus: studies in cell cultures, chick embryos, mice and monkeys. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1970;92(2):137–144.
    1. Alibek K. Biohazard: The Chilling True Story Of The Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program In The World – Told From The Inside By The Man Who Ran It. Dell Publishing; NY, USA: 1999.
    1. Earl PL, Americo JL, Wyatt LS, et al. Rapid protection in a monkeypox model by a single injection of a replication-deficient vaccinia virus. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA. 2008;105(31):10889–10894.
    1. Zielinski RJ, Smedley JV, Perera PY, et al. Smallpox vaccine with integrated IL-15 demonstrates enhanced in vivo viral clearance in immunodeficient mice and confers long term protection against a lethal monkeypox challenge in cynomolgus monkeys. Vaccine. 2010;28(43):7081–7091.
    1. Goff A, Mucker E, Raymond J, et al. Infection of cynomolgus macaques with a recombinant monkeypox virus encoding green fluorescent protein. Arch. Virol. 2011;156(10):1877–1881.

    1. Hooper JW, Thompson E, Wilhelmsen C, et al. Smallpox DNA vaccine protects nonhuman primates against lethal monkeypox. J. Virol. 2004;78(9):4433–4443. Intravenous challenge of NHPs.

    1. Hahon N, McGavran MH. Air-borne infectivity of the variola-vaccinia group of poxviruses for the cynomolgus monkey, Macaca irus. J. Infect. Dis. 1961;109:294–298.

    1. Zaucha GM, Jahrling PB, Geisbert TW, Swearengen JR, Hensley L. The pathology of experimental aerosolized monkeypox virus infection in cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) Lab. Invest. 2001;81(12):1581–1600. Aerosol challenge of NHPs.

    1. Nalca A, Livingston VA, Garza NL, et al. Experimental infection of cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fascicularis) with aerosolized monkeypox virus. PLoS One. 2010;5(9):e12880.

    1. Johnson RF, Dyall J, Ragland DR, et al. Comparative analysis of monkeypox virus infection of cynomolgus macaques by the intravenous or intrabronchial inoculation route. J. Virol. 2011;85(5):2112–2125. Intravenous and intrabronchial comparison challenges in NHPs.

    1. Estep RD, Messaoudi I, O’Connor MA, et al. Deletion of the monkeypox virus inhibitor of complement enzymes locus impacts the adaptive immune response to monkeypox virus in a nonhuman primate model of infection. J. Virol. 2011;85(18):9527–9542.
    1. Brown JN, Estep RD, Lopez-Ferrer D, et al. Characterization of macaque pulmonary fluid proteome during monkeypox infection: dynamics of host response. Mol. Cell. Proteomics. 2010;9(12):2760–2771.

    1. Stittelaar KJ, Van Amerongen G, Kondova I, et al. Modified vaccinia virus Ankara protects macaques against respiratory challenge with monkeypox virus. J. Virol. 2005;79(12):7845–7851. Intratracheal challenge of NHPs.

    1. Stittelaar KJ, Neyts J, Naesens L, et al. Antiviral treatment is more effective than smallpox vaccination upon lethal monkeypox virus infection. Nature. 2006;439(7077):745–748.
    1. Noble J., Jr. A study of new and old world monkeys to determine the likelihood of a simian reservoir of smallpox. Bull. World Health Organ. 1970;42(4):509–514.
    1. Saijo M, Ami Y, Suzaki Y, et al. LC16m8, a highly attenuated vaccinia virus vaccine lacking expression of the membrane protein B5R, protects monkeys from monkeypox. J. Virol. 2006;80(11):5179–5188.
    1. Olsen RG, Blakeslee JR, Mathes L, Nakano JH. Preparation and evaluation of a noninfectious monkey pox virus vaccine. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1977;6(1):50–54.
    1. Janseghers L, Matamba M, Colaert J, Vandepitte J, Desmyter J. Fatal monkeypox in a child in Kikwit, Zaire. Ann. Soc. Belg. Med. Trop. 1984;64(3):295–298.
    1. Jezek Z, Grab B, Szczeniowski M, Paluku KM, Mutombo M. Clinico-epidemiological features of monkeypox patients with an animal or human source of infection. Bull. World Health Organ. 1988;66(4):459–464.
    1. Dyall J, Johnson RF, Chen DY, et al. Evaluation of monkeypox disease progression by molecular imaging. J. Infect. Dis. 2011;204(12):1902–1911.
    1. CDC Update: multistate outbreak of monkeypox – Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Missouri, Ohio, and Wisconsin, 2003. Morb. Mortal. Wkly Rep. 2003;52(27):642–646.
    1. CCD Update: multistate outbreak of monkeypox – Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Missouri, Ohio, and Wisconsin, 2003. Morb. Mortal. Wkly Rep. 2003;52(24):561–564.

    1. Guarner J, Johnson BJ, Paddock CD, et al. Monkeypox transmission and pathogenesis in prairie dogs. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2004;10(3):426–431. Establishment of the prairie dog model.

    1. Langohr IM, Stevenson GW, Thacker HL, Regnery RL. Extensive lesions of monkeypox in a prairie dog (Cynomys sp) Vet. Pathol. 2004;41(6):702–707.
    1. Xiao SY, Sbrana E, Watts DM, Siirin M, Da Rosa AP, Tesh RB. Experimental infection of prairie dogs with monkeypox virus. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2005;11(4):539–545.
    1. Keckler MS, Carroll DS, Gallardo-Romero NF, et al. Establishment of the black-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus) as a novel animal model for comparing smallpox vaccines administered preexposure in both high- and low-dose monkeypox virus challenges. J. Virol. 2011;85(15):7683–7698.
    1. Smith SK, Self J, Weiss S, et al. Effective antiviral treatment of systemic orthopoxvirus disease: ST-246 treatment of prairie dogs infected with monkeypox virus. J. Virol. 2011;85(17):9176–9187.
    1. US FDA . Guidance For Industry. Animal Models – Essential Elements To Address Efficacy Under The Animal Rule. MD, USA: 2009.
    1. Khodakevich L, Szczeniowski M, Nambu Ma D, et al. Monkeypox virus in relation to the ecological features surrounding human settlements in Bumba zone, Zaire. Trop. Geogr. Med. 1987;39(1):56–63.
    1. Reynolds MG, Carroll DS, Olson VA, et al. A silent enzootic of an orthopoxvirus in Ghana, West Africa: evidence for multispecies involvement in the absence of widespread human disease. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2010;82(4):746–754.

    1. Marennikova SS, Shelukhina EM, Zhukova OA. Experimental infection of squirrels Sciurus vulgaris by monkey pox virus. Acta Virol. 1989;33(4):399. First experimental infections of squirrels.

    1. Tesh RB, Watts DM, Sbrana E, Siirin M, Popov VL, Xiao SY. Experimental infection of ground squirrels (Spermophilus tridecemlineatus) with monkeypox virus. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2004;10(9):1563–1567. Establishment of a squirrel model.

    1. Sbrana E, Jordan R, Hruby DE, et al. Efficacy of the antipoxvirus compound ST-246 for treatment of severe orthopoxvirus infection. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2007;76(4):768–773.
    1. Gispen R, Brand-Saathof B. ‘White’ poxvirus strains from monkeys. Bull. World Health Organ. 1972;46(5):585–592.
    1. Marennikova SS, Gurvich EB, Shelukhina EM. Comparison of the properties of five pox virus strains isolated from monkeys. Arch. Gesamte Virusforsch. 1971;33(3):201–210.
    1. Marennikova SS, Seluhina EM. Susceptibility of some rodent species to monkeypox virus, and course of the infection. Bull. World Health Organ. 1976;53(1):13–20.
    1. Sehgal CL, Ray SN. Laboratory studies on monkeypox virus. J. Commun. Dis. 1982;14(1):26–35.
    1. Osorio JE, Iams KP, Meteyer CU, Rocke TE. Comparison of monkeypox viruses pathogenesis in mice by in vivo imaging. PLoS One. 2009;4(8):e6592.
    1. Earl PL, Americo JL, Moss B. Lethal monkeypox virus infection of CAST/EiJ mice is associated with a deficient gamma interferon response. J. Virol. 2012;86(17):9105–9112.
    1. Shchelukhina EM, Marennikova SS. Generalized monkeypox in orally infected rabbits and white mice. Vopr. Virusol. 1975;(6):703–705.
    1. Marennikova S, Shelukhina EM, Shenkman LS. Cotton rats (Sigmodon hispidus) as an experimental model of monkeypox infection; Presented at: Twelfth International Poxvirus Symposium; St. Thomas, US Virgin Islands.Jun 6–10, 1998.
    1. Schultz DA, Sagartz JE, Huso DL, Buller RM. Experimental infection of an African dormouse (Graphiurus kelleni) with monkeypox virus. Virology. 2009;383(1):86–92.
    1. Dzenda T, Ayo JO, Lakpini CA, Adelaiye AB. Seasonal, sex and live weight variations in feed and water consumptions of adult captive African giant rats (Cricetomys gambianus, Waterhouse – 1840) kept individually in cages. J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr. (Berl.) doi:10.1111/j.1439-0396.2012.01287.x (2012) (Epub ahead of print)
    1. Mgode GF, Weetjens BJ, Cox C, et al. Ability of Cricetomys rats to detect Mycobacterium tuberculosis and discriminate it from other microorganisms. Tuberculosis (Edinb.) 2012;92(2):182–186.
    1. Trujillo CM, Rodriguez L, Rodas JD, Arboleda JJ. Experimental infection of Didelphis marsupialis with vesicular stomatitis New Jersey virus. J. Wildl. Dis. 2010;46(1):209–217.
    1. Haag A, Wayss K, Rommelaere J, Cornelis JJ. Experimentally induced infection with autonomous parvoviruses, minute virus of mice and H-1, in the African multimammate mouse (Mastomys coucha) Comp. Med. 2000;50(6):613–621.
    1. Niewiesk S. Current animal models: cotton rat animal model. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 2009;330:89–110.
    1. Mcconnell S, Hickman RL, Wooding WL, Jr., Huxsoll DL. Monkeypox: experimental infection in chimpanzee (Pan satyrus) and immunization with vaccinia virus. Am. J. Vet. Res. 1968;29(8):1675–1680.
    1. Heberling RL, Kalter SS. Induction, course, and transmissibility of monkeypox in the baboon (Papio cynocephalus) J. Infect. Dis. 1971;124(1):33–38.
    1. Heberling RL, Kalter SS, Rodriguez AR. Poxvirus infection of the baboon (Papio cynocephalus) Bull. World Health Organ. 1976;54(3):285–294.
    1. Soekawa M, Moriguchi R, Morita C, Kitamura T, Tanaka Y. Electron-microscopical observations on the development of vaccinia, cowpox and monkeypox viruses in pig skin. Zentralbl. Bakteriol. Orig. A. 1977;237(4):425–443.
    1. Kolhapure RM, Deolankar RP, Tupe CD, et al. Investigation of buffalopox outbreaks in Maharashtra State during 1992–1996. Indian J. Med. Res. 1997;106:441–446.
    1. Kroon EG, Mota BE, Abrahao JS, Da Fonseca FG, de Souza Trindade G. Zoonotic Brazilian Vaccinia virus: from field to therapy. Antiviral Res. 2011;92(2):150–163.
    1. Singh RK, Hosamani M, Balamurugan V, Bhanuprakash V, Rasool TJ, Yadav MP. Buffalopox: an emerging and re-emerging zoonosis. Anim. Health Res. Rev. 2007;8(1):105–114.

    1. Arita I, Gispen R, Kalter SS, et al. Outbreaks of monkeypox and serological surveys in nonhuman primates. Bull. World Health Organ. 1972;46(5):625–631. NHP serological surveys.

    1. Parker S, Handley L, Buller RM. Therapeutic and prophylactic drugs to treat orthopoxvirus infections. Future Virol. 2008;3(6):595–612.
    1. Marriott KA, Parkinson CV, Morefield SI, Davenport R, Nichols R, Monath TP. Clonal vaccinia virus grown in cell culture fully protects monkeys from lethal monkeypox challenge. Vaccine. 2008;26(4):581–588.
    1. Wei H, Huang D, Fortman J, Wang R, Shao L, Chen ZW. Coadministration of cidofovir and smallpox vaccine reduced vaccination side effects but interfered with vaccine-elicited immune responses and immunity to monkeypox. J. Virol. 2009;83(2):1115–1125.
    1. Jordan R, Goff A, Frimm A, et al. ST-246 antiviral efficacy in a nonhuman primate monkeypox model: determination of the minimal effective dose and human dose justification. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2009;53(5):1817–1822.
    1. Huggins J, Goff A, Hensley L, et al. Nonhuman primates are protected from smallpox virus or monkeypox virus challenges by the antiviral drug ST-246. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2009;53(6):2620–2625.
    1. Hirao LA, Draghia-Akli R, Prigge JT, et al. Multivalent smallpox DNA vaccine delivered by intradermal electroporation drives protective immunity in nonhuman primates against lethal monkeypox challenge. J. Infect. Dis. 2011;203(1):95–102.
    1. Buchman GW, Cohen ME, Xiao Y, et al. A protein-based smallpox vaccine protects non-human primates from a lethal monkeypox virus challenge. Vaccine. 2010;28(40):6627–6636.
    1. Denzler KL, Babas T, Rippeon A, et al. Attenuated NYCBH vaccinia virus deleted for the E3L gene confers partial protection against lethal monkeypox virus disease in cynomolgus macaques. Vaccine. 2011;29(52):9684–9690.
    1. Edghill-Smith Y, Golding H, Manischewitz J, et al. Smallpox vaccine-induced antibodies are necessary and sufficient for protection against monkeypox virus. Nat. Med. 2005;11(7):740–747.
    1. Heraud JM, Edghill-Smith Y, Ayala V, et al. Subunit recombinant vaccine protects against monkeypox. J. Immunol. 2006;177(4):2552–2564.
    1. Nigam P, Earl PL, Americo JL, et al. DNA/MVA HIV-1/AIDS vaccine elicits long-lived vaccinia virus-specific immunity and confers protection against a lethal monkeypox challenge. Virology. 2007;366(1):73–83.
    1. Earl PL, Americo JL, Wyatt LS, et al. Recombinant modified vaccinia virus Ankara provides durable protection against disease caused by an immunodeficiency virus as well as long-term immunity to an orthopoxvirus in a non-human primate. Virology. 2007;366(1):84–97.
    1. Edghill-Smith Y, Bray M, Whitehouse CA, et al. Smallpox vaccine does not protect macaques with AIDS from a lethal monkeypox virus challenge. J. Infect. Dis. 2005;191(3):372–381.

Source: PubMed

Sponsorit ja yhteistyökumppanit

Sairaudet

Huumeiden interventiot

3
Tilaa