Working Memory, Reasoning, and Task Switching Training: Transfer Effects, Limitations, and Great Expectations?

Pauline L Baniqued, Courtney M Allen, Michael B Kranz, Kathryn Johnson, Aldis Sipolins, Charles Dickens, Nathan Ward, Alexandra Geyer, Arthur F Kramer, Pauline L Baniqued, Courtney M Allen, Michael B Kranz, Kathryn Johnson, Aldis Sipolins, Charles Dickens, Nathan Ward, Alexandra Geyer, Arthur F Kramer

Abstract

Although some studies have shown that cognitive training can produce improvements to untrained cognitive domains (far transfer), many others fail to show these effects, especially when it comes to improving fluid intelligence. The current study was designed to overcome several limitations of previous training studies by incorporating training expectancy assessments, an active control group, and "Mind Frontiers," a video game-based mobile program comprised of six adaptive, cognitively demanding training tasks that have been found to lead to increased scores in fluid intelligence (Gf) tests. We hypothesize that such integrated training may lead to broad improvements in cognitive abilities by targeting aspects of working memory, executive function, reasoning, and problem solving. Ninety participants completed 20 hour-and-a-half long training sessions over four to five weeks, 45 of whom played Mind Frontiers and 45 of whom completed visual search and change detection tasks (active control). After training, the Mind Frontiers group improved in working memory n-back tests, a composite measure of perceptual speed, and a composite measure of reaction time in reasoning tests. No training-related improvements were found in reasoning accuracy or other working memory tests, nor in composite measures of episodic memory, selective attention, divided attention, and multi-tasking. Perceived self-improvement in the tested abilities did not differ between groups. A general expectancy difference in problem-solving was observed between groups, but this perceived benefit did not correlate with training-related improvement. In summary, although these findings provide modest evidence regarding the efficacy of an integrated cognitive training program, more research is needed to determine the utility of Mind Frontiers as a cognitive training tool.

Conflict of interest statement

Competing Interests: Charles Dickens is employed by Aptima, Inc., which developed the Mind Frontiers game in collaboration with University of Illinois researchers Arthur Kramer and Pauline Baniqued. A version of Mind Frontiers is currently in use in studies at the University of Illinois and Florida State University. Alexandra Geyer was employed by Aptima, Inc. during the development and implementation of the current study. She is no longer affiliated with the company. There are no patents, further products in development or marketed products to declare. This does not alter the authors’ adherence to all the PLOS ONE policies on sharing data and materials.

Figures

Fig 1. Mind Frontiers tasks.
Fig 1. Mind Frontiers tasks.
Screenshots of Mind Frontiers games: Top to bottom, left to right: Supply Run, Riding Shotgun, Sentry Duty, Safe Cracker, Irrigator, Pen ‘Em Up.
Fig 2. Active control tasks.
Fig 2. Active control tasks.
Left: Screenshots of three versions of the change detection task, from top to bottom: colored shapes, cars, letters. Right: Screenshots of three versions of the visual search tasks, from top to bottom: original visual search in Redick et al. [32], colored Ps, Ls. For publication purposes, stimuli are not drawn to scale (enlarged).
Fig 3. Practice effects.
Fig 3. Practice effects.
Panel 1: Average level across sessions for each Mind Frontiers task. Panels 2–3. Average level across sessions for each active control task. Panel 2: Change detection average maximum duration according to session and set size. Panel 3: Visual search average level according to session and task (color). Error bars are SEM.
Fig 4. Transfer effects.
Fig 4. Transfer effects.
Displayed are means from the MANOVA (N = 42 for Mind Frontiers, N = 45 for Active Control). Error bars are SEM.

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