Sepsis biomarkers: a review

Charalampos Pierrakos, Jean-Louis Vincent, Charalampos Pierrakos, Jean-Louis Vincent

Abstract

Introduction: Biomarkers can be useful for identifying or ruling out sepsis, identifying patients who may benefit from specific therapies or assessing the response to therapy.

Methods: We used an electronic search of the PubMed database using the key words "sepsis" and "biomarker" to identify clinical and experimental studies which evaluated a biomarker in sepsis.

Results: The search retrieved 3370 references covering 178 different biomarkers.

Conclusions: Many biomarkers have been evaluated for use in sepsis. Most of the biomarkers had been tested clinically, primarily as prognostic markers in sepsis; relatively few have been used for diagnosis. None has sufficient specificity or sensitivity to be routinely employed in clinical practice. PCT and CRP have been most widely used, but even these have limited ability to distinguish sepsis from other inflammatory conditions or to predict outcome.

References

    1. Angus DC, Linde-Zwirble WT, Lidicker J, Clermont G, Carcillo J, Pinsky MR. Epidemiology of severe sepsis in the United States: analysis of incidence, outcome, and associated costs of care. Crit Care Med. 2001;29:1303–1310. doi: 10.1097/00003246-200107000-00002.
    1. Hotchkiss RS, Karl IE. The pathophysiology and treatment of sepsis. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:138–150. doi: 10.1056/NEJMra021333.
    1. Gullo A, Bianco N, Berlot G. Management of severe sepsis and septic shock: challenges and recommendations. Crit Care Clin. 2006;22:489–501. doi: 10.1016/j.ccc.2006.03.006.
    1. Lever A, Mackenzie I. Sepsis: definition, epidemiology, and diagnosis. BMJ. 2007;335:879–883. doi: 10.1136/.
    1. Kumar A, Roberts D, Wood KE, Light B, Parrillo JE, Sharma S, Suppes R, Feinstein D, Zanotti S, Taiberg L, Gurka D, Kumar A, Cheang M. Duration of hypotension before initiation of effective antimicrobial therapy is the critical determinant of survival in human septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2006;34:1589–1596. doi: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000217961.75225.E9.
    1. Zambon M, Ceola M, Almeida-de-Castro R, Gullo A, Vincent JL. Implementation of the Surviving Sepsis Campaign guidelines for severe sepsis and septic shock: we could go faster. J Crit Care. 2008;23:455–460. doi: 10.1016/j.jcrc.2007.08.003.
    1. Biomarkers Definitions Working Group. Biomarkers and surrogate endpoints: preferred definitions and conceptual framework. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2001;69:89–95. doi: 10.1067/mcp.2001.113989.
    1. Marshall JC, Reinhart K. Biomarkers of sepsis. Crit Care Med. 2009;37:2290–2298. doi: 10.1097/CCM.0b013e3181a02afc.
    1. Dellinger RP, Levy MM, Carlet JM, Bion J, Parker MM, Jaeschke R, Reinhart K, Angus DC, Brun-Buisson C, Beale R, Calandra T, Dhainaut JF, Gerlach H, Harvey M, Marini JJ, Marshall J, Ranieri M, Ramsay G, Sevransky J, Thompson BT, Townsend S, Vender JS, Zimmerman JL, Vincent JL. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock: 2008. Crit Care Med. 2008;36:296–327. doi: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000298158.12101.41.
    1. Povoa P, Coelho L, Almeida E, Fernandes A, Mealha R, Moreira P, Sabino H. C-reactive protein as a marker of infection in critically ill patients. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2005;11:101–108. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2004.01044.x.
    1. Schmit X, Vincent JL. The time course of blood C-reactive protein concentrations in relation to the response to initial antimicrobial therapy in patients with sepsis. Infection. 2008;36:213–219. doi: 10.1007/s15010-007-7077-9.
    1. Clyne B, Olshaker JS. The C-reactive protein. J Emerg Med. 1999;17:1019–1025. doi: 10.1016/S0736-4679(99)00135-3.
    1. Nakamura A, Wada H, Ikejiri M, Hatada T, Sakurai H, Matsushima Y, Nishioka J, Maruyama K, Isaji S, Takeda T, Nobori T. Efficacy of procalcitonin in the early diagnosis of bacterial infections in a critical care unit. Shock. 2009;31:586–591.
    1. Luzzani A, Polati E, Dorizzi R, Rungatscher A, Pavan R, Merlini A. Comparison of procalcitonin and C-reactive protein as markers of sepsis. Crit Care Med. 2003;31:1737–1741. doi: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000063440.19188.ED.
    1. Tang BM, Eslick GD, Craig JC, McLean AS. Accuracy of procalcitonin for sepsis diagnosis in critically ill patients: systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2007;7:210–217. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(07)70052-X.
    1. Giamarellos-Bourboulis EJ, Giannopoulou P, Grecka P, Voros D, Mandragos K, Giamarellou H. Should procalcitonin be introduced in the diagnostic criteria for the systemic inflammatory response syndrome and sepsis? J Crit Care. 2004;19:152–157. doi: 10.1016/j.jcrc.2004.07.001.
    1. Penttila I, Penttila K, Rantanen T. Laboratory diagnosis of patients with acute chest pain. Clin Chem Lab Med. 2000;38:187–197. doi: 10.1515/CCLM.2000.027.
    1. Tang BL, Kumar R. Biomarkers of mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease. Ann Acad Med Singapore. 2008;37:406–410.
    1. Marshall JC, Vincent JL, Fink MP, Cook DJ, Rubenfeld G, Foster D, Fisher CJ Jr, Faist E, Reinhart K. Measures, markers, and mediators: toward a staging system for clinical sepsis. A report of the Fifth Toronto Sepsis Roundtable, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, October 25-26, 2000. Crit Care Med. 2003;31:1560–1567. doi: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000065186.67848.3A.
    1. Levy MM, Fink MP, Marshall JC, Abraham E, Angus D, Cook D, Cohen J, Opal SM, Vincent JL, Ramsay G. 2001 SCCM/ESICM/ACCP/ATS/SIS International Sepsis Definitions Conference. Crit Care Med. 2003;31:1250–1256. doi: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000050454.01978.3B.
    1. Ugarte H, Silva E, Mercan D, de Mendonca A, Vincent JL. Procalcitonin used as a marker of infection in the intensive care unit. Crit Care Med. 1999;27:498–504. doi: 10.1097/00003246-199903000-00024.
    1. Suprin E, Camus C, Gacouin A, Le Tulzo Y, Lavoue S, Feuillu A, Thomas R. Procalcitonin: a valuable indicator of infection in a medical ICU? Intensive Care Med. 2000;26:1232–1238. doi: 10.1007/s001340000580.
    1. Mimoz O, Benoist JF, Edouard AR, Assicot M, Bohuon C, Samii K. Procalcitonin and C-reactive protein during the early posttraumatic systemic inflammatory response syndrome. Intensive Care Med. 1998;24:185–188. doi: 10.1007/s001340050543.
    1. Meisner M, Tschaikowsky K, Hutzler A, Schick C, Schuttler J. Postoperative plasma concentrations of procalcitonin after different types of surgery. Intensive Care Med. 1998;24:680–684. doi: 10.1007/s001340050644.
    1. Hensel M, Volk T, Docke WD, Kern F, Tschirna D, Egerer K, Konertz W, Kox WJ. Hyperprocalcitonemia in patients with noninfectious SIRS and pulmonary dysfunction associated with cardiopulmonary bypass. Anesthesiology. 1998;89:93–104. doi: 10.1097/00000542-199807000-00016.
    1. Lobo SM, Lobo FR, Bota DP, Lopes-Ferreira F, Soliman HM, Melot C, Vincent JL. C-reactive protein levels correlate with mortality and organ failure in critically ill patients. Chest. 2003;123:2043–2049. doi: 10.1378/chest.123.6.2043.
    1. Pinsky MR, Vincent JL, Deviere J, Alegre M, Kahn RJ, Dupont E. Serum cytokine levels in human septic shock. Relation to multiple-system organ failure and mortality. Chest. 1993;103:565–575. doi: 10.1378/chest.103.2.565.
    1. Wu HP, Chen CK, Chung K, Tseng JC, Hua CC, Liu YC, Chuang DY, Yang CH. Serial cytokine levels in patients with severe sepsis. Inflamm Res. in press .
    1. Sherwin C, Broadbent R, Young S, Worth J, McCaffrey F, Medlicott NJ, Reith D. Utility of interleukin-12 and interleukin-10 in comparison with other cytokines and acute-phase reactants in the diagnosis of neonatal sepsis. Am J Perinatol. 2008;25:629–636. doi: 10.1055/s-0028-1090585.
    1. Ng PC, Li K, Chui KM, Leung TF, Wong RP, Chu WC, Wong E, Fok TF. IP-10 is an early diagnostic marker for identification of late-onset bacterial infection in preterm infants. Pediatr Res. 2007;61:93–98. doi: 10.1203/01.pdr.0000250207.95723.96.
    1. Rintala EM, Aittoniemi J, Laine S, Nevalainen TJ, Nikoskelainen J. Early identification of bacteremia by biochemical markers of systemic inflammation. Scand J Clin Lab Invest. 2001;61:523–530. doi: 10.1080/003655101753218283.
    1. Nuutila J, Hohenthal U, Laitinen I, Kotilainen P, Rajamaki A, Nikoskelainen J, Lilius EM. Simultaneous quantitative analysis of FcgammaRI (CD64) expression on neutrophils and monocytes: a new, improved way to detect infections. J Immunol Methods. 2007;328:189–200. doi: 10.1016/j.jim.2007.09.002.
    1. Nupponen I, Andersson S, Jarvenpaa AL, Kautiainen H, Repo H. Neutrophil CD11b expression and circulating interleukin-8 as diagnostic markers for early-onset neonatal sepsis. Pediatrics. 2001;108:E12. doi: 10.1542/peds.108.1.e12.
    1. Liaudat S, Dayer E, Praz G, Bille J, Troillet N. Usefulness of procalcitonin serum level for the diagnosis of bacteremia. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2001;20:524–527. doi: 10.1007/s100960100548.
    1. Zakariah AN, Cozzi SM, Van Nuffelen M, Clausi CM, Pradier O, Vincent JL. Combination of biphasic transmittance waveform with blood procalcitonin levels for diagnosis of sepsis in acutely ill patients. Crit Care Med. 2008;36:1507–1512. doi: 10.1097/CCM.0b013e3181709f19.
    1. Deitcher SR, Eisenberg PR. Elevated concentrations of cross-linked fibrin degradation products in plasma. An early marker of gram-negative bacteremia. Chest. 1993;103:1107–1112. doi: 10.1378/chest.103.4.1107.
    1. Emmanuilidis K, Weighardt H, Matevossian E, Heidecke CD, Ulm K, Bartels H, Siewert JR, Holzmann B. Differential regulation of systemic IL-18 and IL-12 release during postoperative sepsis: high serum IL-18 as an early predictive indicator of lethal outcome. Shock. 2002;18:301–305. doi: 10.1097/00024382-200210000-00002.
    1. Figueras-Aloy J, Gomez-Lopez L, Rodriguez-Miguelez JM, Salvia-Roiges MD, Jordan-Garcia I, Ferrer-Codina I, Carbonell-Estrany X, Jimenez-Gonzalez R. Serum soluble ICAM-1, VCAM-1, L-selectin, and P-selectin levels as markers of infection and their relation to clinical severity in neonatal sepsis. Am J Perinatol. 2007;24:331–338. doi: 10.1055/s-2007-981851.
    1. Sakr Y, Burgett U, Nacul FE, Reinhart K, Brunkhorst F. Lipopolysaccharide binding protein in a surgical intensive care unit: a marker of sepsis? Crit Care Med. 2008;36:2014–2022. doi: 10.1097/CCM.0b013e31817b86e3.
    1. Carrigan SD, Scott G, Tabrizian M. Toward resolving the challenges of sepsis diagnosis. Clin Chem. 2004;50:1301–1314. doi: 10.1373/clinchem.2004.032144.
    1. Ng PC, Lam HS. Diagnostic markers for neonatal sepsis. Curr Opin Pediatr. 2006;18:125–131. doi: 10.1097/01.mop.0000193293.87022.4c.
    1. Bozza FA, Salluh JI, Japiassu AM, Soares M, Assis EF, Gomes RN, Bozza MT, Castro-Faria-Neto HC, Bozza PT. Cytokine profiles as markers of disease severity in sepsis: a multiplex analysis. Crit Care. 2007;11:R49. doi: 10.1186/cc5783.
    1. Kofoed K, Schneider UV, Scheel T, Andersen O, Eugen-Olsen J. Development and validation of a multiplex add-on assay for sepsis biomarkers using xMAP technology. Clin Chem. 2006;52:1284–1293. doi: 10.1373/clinchem.2006.067595.
    1. Shapiro NI, Trzeciak S, Hollander JE, Birkhahn R, Otero R, Osborn TM, Moretti E, Nguyen HB, Gunnerson KJ, Milzman D, Gaieski DF, Goyal M, Cairns CB, Ngo L, Rivers EP. A prospective, multicenter derivation of a biomarker panel to assess risk of organ dysfunction, shock, and death in emergency department patients with suspected sepsis. Crit Care Med. 2009;37:96–104. doi: 10.1097/CCM.0b013e318192fd9d.
    1. Nobre V, Harbarth S, Graf JD, Rohner P, Pugin J. Use of procalcitonin to shorten antibiotic treatment duration in septic patients: a randomized trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2008;177:498–505. doi: 10.1164/rccm.200708-1238OC.
    1. Briel M, Schuetz P, Mueller B, Young J, Schild U, Nusbaumer C, Periat P, Bucher HC, Christ-Crain M. Procalcitonin-guided antibiotic use vs a standard approach for acute respiratory tract infections in primary care. Arch Intern Med. 2008;168:2000–2007. doi: 10.1001/archinte.168.18.2000.
    1. Bernard GR, Vincent JL, Laterre PF, LaRosa SP, Dhainaut JF, Lopez-Rodriguez A, Steingrub JS, Garber GE, Helterbrand JD, Ely EW, Fisher CJ Jr. Efficacy and safety of recombinant human activated protein C for severe sepsis. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:699–709. doi: 10.1056/NEJM200103083441001.
    1. Panacek EA, Marshall JC, Albertson TE, Johnson DH, Johnson S, MacArthur RD, Miller M, Barchuk WT, Fischkoff S, Kaul M, Teoh L, Van Meter L, Daum L, Lemeshow S, Hicklin G, Doig C. Efficacy and safety of the monoclonal anti-tumor necrosis factor antibody F(ab')2 fragment afelimomab in patients with severe sepsis and elevated interleukin-6 levels. Crit Care Med. 2004;32:2173–2182.
    1. Vermont CL, Hazelzet JA, de Kleijn ED, Dobbelsteen GP van den, de Groot R. CC and CXC chemokine levels in children with meningococcal sepsis accurately predict mortality and disease severity. Crit Care. 2006;10:R33. doi: 10.1186/cc4836.
    1. Rodriguez-Wilhelmi P, Montes R, Matsukawa A, Hurtado V, Montes M, Hermida J, Rocha E. Interleukin (IL)-8 and growth related oncogene-alpha in severe endotoxemia and the effects of a tumor necrosis factor-alpha/IL-1beta inhibitor on these chemokines. Exp Mol Pathol. 2002;73:220–229. doi: 10.1006/exmp.2002.2467.
    1. Karlsson S, Pettila V, Tenhunen J, Laru-Sompa R, Hynninen M, Ruokonen E. HMGB1 as a predictor of organ dysfunction and outcome in patients with severe sepsis. Intensive Care Med. 2008;34:1046–1053. doi: 10.1007/s00134-008-1032-9.
    1. Shao YM, Yao HG, Liang XZ, Xia YH. [Relation between level of expression of high mobility group protein B1 in hepatic tissue with the severity and prognosis of sepsis in rat] Zhongguo Wei Zhong Bing Ji Jiu Yi Xue. 2006;18:668–672.
    1. Schmidhammer R, Wassermann E, Germann P, Redl H, Ullrich R. Infusion of increasing doses of endotoxin induces progressive acute lung injury but prevents early pulmonary hypertension in pigs. Shock. 2006;25:389–394. doi: 10.1097/01.shk.0000209529.43367.00.
    1. Hynninen M, Valtonen M, Markkanen H, Vaara M, Kuusela P, Jousela I, Piilonen A, Takkunen O. Interleukin 1 receptor antagonist and E-selectin concentrations: a comparison in patients with severe acute pancreatitis and severe sepsis. J Crit Care. 1999;14:63–68. doi: 10.1016/S0883-9441(99)90015-1.
    1. Kuster H, Weiss M, Willeitner AE, Detlefsen S, Jeremias I, Zbojan J, Geiger R, Lipowsky G, Simbruner G. Interleukin-1 receptor antagonist and interleukin-6 for early diagnosis of neonatal sepsis 2 days before clinical manifestation. Lancet. 1998;352:1271–1277. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(98)08148-3.
    1. Murch O, Collin M, Sepodes B, Foster SJ, Mota-Filipe H, Thiemermann C. Lysophosphatidylcholine reduces the organ injury and dysfunction in rodent models of gram-negative and gram-positive shock. Br J Pharmacol. 2006;148:769–777. doi: 10.1038/sj.bjp.0706788.
    1. Kurt AN, Aygun AD, Godekmerdan A, Kurt A, Dogan Y, Yilmaz E. Serum IL-1beta, IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-alpha levels in early diagnosis and management of neonatal sepsis. Mediators Inflamm. 2007;2007:31397. doi: 10.1155/2007/31397.
    1. BalcI C, Sungurtekin H, Gurses E, Sungurtekin U, Kaptanoglu B. Usefulness of procalcitonin for diagnosis of sepsis in the intensive care unit. Crit Care. 2003;7:85–90. doi: 10.1186/cc1843.
    1. DiPiro JT, Howdieshell TR, Goddard JK, Callaway DB, Hamilton RG, Mansberger AR Jr. Association of interleukin-4 plasma levels with traumatic injury and clinical course. Arch Surg. 1995;130:1159–1162.
    1. Patel RT, Deen KI, Youngs D, Warwick J, Keighley MR. Interleukin 6 is a prognostic indicator of outcome in severe intra-abdominal sepsis. Br J Surg. 1994;81:1306–1308. doi: 10.1002/bjs.1800810914.
    1. El Maghraby SM, Moneer MM, Ismail MM, Shalaby LM, El Mahallawy HA. The diagnostic value of C-reactive protein, interleukin-8, and monocyte chemotactic protein in risk stratification of febrile neutropenic children with hematologic malignancies. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 2007;29:131–136. doi: 10.1097/MPH.0b013e3180308770.
    1. Fujishima S, Sasaki J, Shinozawa Y, Takuma K, Kimura H, Suzuki M, Kanazawa M, Hori S, Aikawa N. Serum MIP-1 alpha and IL-8 in septic patients. Intensive Care Med. 1996;22:1169–1175. doi: 10.1007/BF01709331.
    1. Heper Y, Akalin EH, Mistik R, Akgoz S, Tore O, Goral G, Oral B, Budak F, Helvaci S. Evaluation of serum C-reactive protein, procalcitonin, tumor necrosis factor alpha, and interleukin-10 levels as diagnostic and prognostic parameters in patients with community-acquired sepsis, severe sepsis, and septic shock. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2006;25:481–491. doi: 10.1007/s10096-006-0168-1.
    1. Wang CH, Gee MJ, Yang C, Su YC. A new model for outcome prediction in intra-abdominal sepsis by the linear discriminant function analysis of IL-6 and IL-10 at different heart rates. J Surg Res. 2006;132:46–51. doi: 10.1016/j.jss.2005.08.030.
    1. Marchant A, Alegre ML, Hakim A, Pierard G, Marecaux G, Friedman G, De Groote D, Kahn RJ, Vincent JL, Goldman M. Clinical and biological significance of interleukin-10 plasma levels in patients with septic shock. J Clin Immunol. 1995;15:266–273. doi: 10.1007/BF01540884.
    1. Castellheim A, Thorgersen EB, Hellerud BC, Pharo A, Johansen HT, Brosstad F, Gaustad P, Brun H, Fosse E, Tonnessen TI, Nielsen EW, Mollnes TE. New biomarkers in an acute model of live Escherichia coli-induced sepsis in pigs. Scand J Immunol. 2008;68:75–84. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3083.2008.02122.x.
    1. Weighardt H, Heidecke CD, Westerholt A, Emmanuilidis K, Maier S, Veit M, Gerauer K, Matevossian E, Ulm K, Siewert JR, Holzmann B. Impaired monocyte IL-12 production before surgery as a predictive factor for the lethal outcome of postoperative sepsis. Ann Surg. 2002;235:560–567. doi: 10.1097/00000658-200204000-00015.
    1. Collighan N, Giannoudis PV, Kourgeraki O, Perry SL, Guillou PJ, Bellamy MC. Interleukin 13 and inflammatory markers in human sepsis. Br J Surg. 2004;91:762–768. doi: 10.1002/bjs.4521.
    1. Matsukawa A, Hogaboam CM, Lukacs NW, Lincoln PM, Evanoff HL, Strieter RM, Kunkel SL. Expression and contribution of endogenous IL-13 in an experimental model of sepsis. J Immunol. 2000;164:2738–2744.
    1. Oberholzer A, Steckholzer U, Kurimoto M, Trentz O, Ertel W. Interleukin-18 plasma levels are increased in patients with sepsis compared to severely injured patients. Shock. 2001;16:411–414. doi: 10.1097/00024382-200116060-00001.
    1. Tsujimoto H, Ono S, Majima T, Kawarabayashi N, Takayama E, Kinoshita M, Seki S, Hiraide H, Moldawer LL, Mochizuki H. Neutrophil elastase, MIP-2, and TLR-4 expression during human and experimental sepsis. Shock. 2005;23:39–44. doi: 10.1097/01.shk.0000145936.31967.d7.
    1. O'Grady NP, Tropea M, Preas HL, Reda D, Vandivier RW, Banks SM, Suffredini AF. Detection of macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1alpha and MIP-1beta during experimental endotoxemia and human sepsis. J Infect Dis. 1999;179:136–141. doi: 10.1086/314559.
    1. Bacher M, Meinhardt A, Lan HY, Mu W, Metz CN, Chesney JA, Calandra T, Gemsa D, Donnelly T, Atkins RC, Bucala R. Migration inhibitory factor expression in experimentally induced endotoxemia. Am J Pathol. 1997;150:235–246.
    1. Jansen PM, Van Damme J, Put W, de Jong IW, Taylor FB Jr, Hack CE. Monocyte chemotactic protein 1 is released during lethal and sublethal bacteremia in baboons. J Infect Dis. 1995;171:1640–1642.
    1. Vaschetto R, Nicola S, Olivieri C, Boggio E, Piccolella F, Mesturini R, Damnotti F, Colombo D, Navalesi P, Della CF, Dianzani U, Chiocchetti A. Serum levels of osteopontin are increased in SIRS and sepsis. Intensive Care Med. 2008;34:2176–2184. doi: 10.1007/s00134-008-1268-4.
    1. Moller AS, Bjerre A, Brusletto B, Joo GB, Brandtzaeg P, Kierulf P. Chemokine patterns in meningococcal disease. J Infect Dis. 2005;191:768–775. doi: 10.1086/427514.
    1. VanOtteren GM, Strieter RM, Kunkel SL, Paine R III, Greenberger MJ, Danforth JM, Burdick MD, Standiford TJ. Compartmentalized expression of RANTES in a murine model of endotoxemia. J Immunol. 1995;154:1900–1908.
    1. Calandra T, Baumgartner JD, Grau GE, Wu MM, Lambert PH, Schellekens J, Verhoef J, Glauser MP. Prognostic values of tumor necrosis factor/cachectin, interleukin-1, interferon-alpha, and interferon-gamma in the serum of patients with septic shock. Swiss-Dutch J5 Immunoglobulin Study Group. J Infect Dis. 1990;161:982–987.
    1. Riche F, Panis Y, Laisne MJ, Briard C, Cholley B, Bernard-Poenaru O, Graulet AM, Gueris J, Valleur P. High tumor necrosis factor serum level is associated with increased survival in patients with abdominal septic shock: a prospective study in 59 patients. Surgery. 1996;120:801–807. doi: 10.1016/S0039-6060(96)80087-0.
    1. Kaneko T, Stearns-Kurosawa DJ, Taylor F Jr, Twigg M, Osaki K, Kinasewitz GT, Peer G, Kurosawa S. Reduced neutrophil CD10 expression in nonhuman primates and humans after in vivo challenge with E. coli or lipopolysaccharide. Shock. 2003;20:130–137. doi: 10.1097/01.shk.0000068326.68761.34.
    1. Martens A, Eppink GJ, Woittiez AJ, Eidhof H, de Leij LF. Neutrophil function capacity to express CD10 is decreased in patients with septic shock. Crit Care Med. 1999;27:549–553. doi: 10.1097/00003246-199903000-00034.
    1. Weiss DJ, Welle M, Mortiz A, Walcheck B. Evaluation of leukocyte cell surface markers in dogs with septic and nonseptic inflammatory diseases. Am J Vet Res. 2004;65:59–63. doi: 10.2460/ajvr.2004.65.59.
    1. Russwurm S, Vickers J, Meier-Hellmann A, Spangenberg P, Bredle D, Reinhart K, Losche W. Platelet and leukocyte activation correlate with the severity of septic organ dysfunction. Shock. 2002;17:263–268. doi: 10.1097/00024382-200204000-00004.
    1. Williams MA, White SA, Miller JJ, Toner C, Withington S, Newland AC, Kelsey SM. Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor induces activation and restores respiratory burst activity in monocytes from septic patients. J Infect Dis. 1998;177:107–115. doi: 10.1086/513802.
    1. Aalto H, Takala A, Kautiainen H, Siitonen S, Repo H. Monocyte CD14 and soluble CD14 in predicting mortality of patients with severe community acquired infection. Scand J Infect Dis. 2007;39:596–603. doi: 10.1080/00365540701199808.
    1. Ebdrup L, Krog J, Granfeldt A, Tonnesen E, Hokland M. Dynamic expression of the signal regulatory protein alpha and CD18 on porcine PBMC during acute endotoxaemia. Scand J Immunol. 2008;68:430–437. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3083.2008.02157.x.
    1. Saito K, Wagatsuma T, Toyama H, Ejima Y, Hoshi K, Shibusawa M, Kato M, Kurosawa S. Sepsis is characterized by the increases in percentages of circulating CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells and plasma levels of soluble CD25. Tohoku J Exp Med. 2008;216:61–68. doi: 10.1620/tjem.216.61.
    1. Nolan A, Weiden M, Kelly A, Hoshino Y, Hoshino S, Mehta N, Gold JA. CD40 and CD80/86 act synergistically to regulate inflammation and mortality in polymicrobial sepsis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2008;177:301–308. doi: 10.1164/rccm.200703-515OC.
    1. Sugimoto K, Galle C, Preiser JC, Creteur J, Vincent JL, Pradier O. Monocyte CD40 expression in severe sepsis. Shock. 2003;19:24–27. doi: 10.1097/00024382-200301000-00005.
    1. Katsuura M, Shimizu Y, Akiba K, Kanazawa C, Mitsui T, Sendo D, Kawakami T, Hayasaka K, Yokoyama S. CD48 expression on leukocytes in infectious diseases: flow cytometric analysis of surface antigen. Acta Paediatr Jpn. 1998;40:580–585.
    1. Livaditi O, Kotanidou A, Psarra A, Dimopoulou I, Sotiropoulou C, Augustatou K, Papasteriades C, Armaganidis A, Roussos C, Orfanos SE, Douzinas EE. Neutrophil CD64 expression and serum IL-8: sensitive early markers of severity and outcome in sepsis. Cytokine. 2006;36:283–290. doi: 10.1016/j.cyto.2007.02.007.
    1. Schwulst SJ, Muenzer JT, Chang KC, Brahmbhatt TS, Coopersmith CM, Hotchkiss RS. Lymphocyte phenotyping to distinguish septic from nonseptic critical illness. J Am Coll Surg. 2008;206:335–342. doi: 10.1016/j.jamcollsurg.2007.07.038.
    1. Moller HJ, Moestrup SK, Weis N, Wejse C, Nielsen H, Pedersen SS, Attermann J, Nexo E, Kronborg G. Macrophage serum markers in pneumococcal bacteremia: Prediction of survival by soluble CD163. Crit Care Med. 2006;34:2561–2566. doi: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000239120.32490.AB.
    1. Monneret G, Lepape A, Voirin N, Bohe J, Venet F, Debard AL, Thizy H, Bienvenu J, Gueyffier F, Vanhems P. Persisting low monocyte human leukocyte antigen-DR expression predicts mortality in septic shock. Intensive Care Med. 2006;32:1175–1183. doi: 10.1007/s00134-006-0204-8.
    1. Zhou Y, Yang Y, Warr G, Bravo R. LPS down-regulates the expression of chemokine receptor CCR2 in mice and abolishes macrophage infiltration in acute inflammation. J Leukoc Biol. 1999;65:265–269.
    1. Drouin SM, Kildsgaard J, Haviland J, Zabner J, Jia HP, McCray PB Jr, Tack BF, Wetsel RA. Expression of the complement anaphylatoxin C3a and C5a receptors on bronchial epithelial and smooth muscle cells in models of sepsis and asthma. J Immunol. 2001;166:2025–2032.
    1. Huber-Lang M, Sarma JV, Rittirsch D, Schreiber H, Weiss M, Flierl M, Younkin E, Schneider M, Suger-Wiedeck H, Gebhard F, McClintock SD, Neff T, Zetoune F, Bruckner U, Guo RF, Monk PN, Ward PA. Changes in the novel orphan, C5a receptor (C5L2), during experimental sepsis and sepsis in humans. J Immunol. 2005;174:1104–1110.
    1. Venet F, Lepape A, Debard AL, Bienvenu J, Bohe J, Monneret G. The Th2 response as monitored by CRTH2 or CCR3 expression is severely decreased during septic shock. Clin Immunol. 2004;113:278–284. doi: 10.1016/j.clim.2004.07.005.
    1. De Freitas I, Fernandez-Somoza M, Essenfeld-Sekler E, Cardier JE. Serum levels of the apoptosis-associated molecules, tumor necrosis factor-alpha/tumor necrosis factor type-I receptor and Fas/FasL, in sepsis. Chest. 2004;125:2238–2246. doi: 10.1378/chest.125.6.2238.
    1. Muller Kobold AC, Zijlstra JG, Koene HR, de Haas M, Kallenberg CG, Tervaert JW. Levels of soluble Fc gammaRIII correlate with disease severity in sepsis. Clin Exp Immunol. 1998;114:220–227. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2249.1998.00727.x.
    1. Ebihara I, Hirayama K, Kaneko S, Nagai M, Ogawa Y, Fujita S, Usui J, Mase K, Yamagata K, Kobayashi M. Vascular endothelial growth factor and soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase-1 in septic shock patients treated with direct hemoperfusion with a polymyxin B-immobilized fiber column. Ther Apher Dial. 2008;12:285–291. doi: 10.1111/j.1744-9987.2008.00589.x.
    1. Tsao PN, Chan FT, Wei SC, Hsieh WS, Chou HC, Su YN, Chen CY, Hsu WM, Hsieh FJ, Hsu SM. Soluble vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-1 protects mice in sepsis. Crit Care Med. 2007;35:1955–1960. doi: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000275273.56547.B8.
    1. Marsik C, Halama T, Cardona F, Schlifke I, Mittermayer F, Jilma B. Endotoxemia enhances expression of the signaling receptor (GP130) on protein and molecular level. Clin Immunol. 2005;114:293–298. doi: 10.1016/j.clim.2004.11.003.
    1. Delogu G, Casula MA, Mancini P, Tellan G, Signore L. Serum neopterin and soluble interleukin-2 receptor for prediction of a shock state in gram-negative sepsis. J Crit Care. 1995;10:64–71. doi: 10.1016/0883-9441(95)90018-7.
    1. Yokota Y, Ikeda M, Higashino K, Nakano K, Fujii N, Arita H, Hanasaki K. Enhanced tissue expression and elevated circulating level of phospholipase A(2) receptor during murine endotoxic shock. Arch Biochem Biophys. 2000;379:7–17. doi: 10.1006/abbi.2000.1849.
    1. Endo S, Inada K, Nakae H, Takakuwa T, Yamada Y, Suzuki T, Taniguchi S, Yoshida M, Ogawa M, Teraoka H. Plasma levels of type II phospholipase A2 and cytokines in patients with sepsis. Res Commun Mol Pathol Pharmacol. 1995;90:413–421.
    1. Bopp C, Hofer S, Weitz J, Bierhaus A, Nawroth PP, Martin E, Buchler MW, Weigand MA. sRAGE is elevated in septic patients and associated with patients outcome. J Surg Res. 2008;147:79–83. doi: 10.1016/j.jss.2007.07.014.
    1. Brunner M, Krenn C, Roth G, Moser B, Dworschak M, Jensen-Jarolim E, Spittler A, Sautner T, Bonaros N, Wolner E, Boltz-Nitulescu G, Ankersmit HJ. Increased levels of soluble ST2 protein and IgG1 production in patients with sepsis and trauma. Intensive Care Med. 2004;30:1468–1473. doi: 10.1007/s00134-004-2184-x.
    1. Williams DL, Ha T, Li C, Kalbfleisch JH, Schweitzer J, Vogt W, Browder IW. Modulation of tissue Toll-like receptor 2 and 4 during the early phases of polymicrobial sepsis correlates with mortality. Crit Care Med. 2003;31:1808–1818. doi: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000069343.27691.F3.
    1. Orliac ML, Peroni RN, Abramoff T, Neuman I, Podesta EJ, Adler-Graschinsky E. Increases in vanilloid TRPV1 receptor protein and CGRP content during endotoxemia in rats. Eur J Pharmacol. 2007;566:145–152. doi: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2007.03.032.
    1. Gibot S, Massin F, Le Renard P, Bene MC, Faure GC, Bollaert PE, Levy B. Surface and soluble triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells-1: expression patterns in murine sepsis. Crit Care Med. 2005;33:1787–1793. doi: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000172614.36571.75.
    1. Gibot S, Cravoisy A, Kolopp-Sarda MN, Bene MC, Faure G, Bollaert PE, Levy B. Time-course of sTREM (soluble triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells)-1, procalcitonin, and C-reactive protein plasma concentrations during sepsis. Crit Care Med. 2005;33:792–796. doi: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000159089.16462.4A.
    1. Ertel W, Scholl FA, Gallati H, Bonaccio M, Schildberg FW, Trentz O. Increased release of soluble tumor necrosis factor receptors into blood during clinical sepsis. Arch Surg. 1994;129:1330–1336.
    1. Wittenhagen P, Kronborg G, Weis N, Nielsen H, Obel N, Pedersen SS, Eugen-Olsen J. The plasma level of soluble urokinase receptor is elevated in patients with Streptococcus pneumoniae bacteraemia and predicts mortality. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2004;10:409–415. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2004.00850.x.
    1. Pettila V, Pentti J, Pettila M, Takkunen O, Jousela I. Predictive value of antithrombin III and serum C-reactive protein concentration in critically ill patients with suspected sepsis. Crit Care Med. 2002;30:271–275. doi: 10.1097/00003246-200202000-00001.
    1. Kinasewitz GT, Yan SB, Basson B, Comp P, Russell JA, Cariou A, Um SL, Utterback B, Laterre PF, Dhainaut JF. Universal changes in biomarkers of coagulation and inflammation occur in patients with severe sepsis, regardless of causative micro-organism [ISRCTN74215569] Crit Care. 2004;8:R82–R90. doi: 10.1186/cc2459.
    1. Lorenz R, Brauer M. Platelet factor 4 (PF4) in septicaemia. Infection. 1988;16:273–276. doi: 10.1007/BF01645070.
    1. Madoiwa S, Nunomiya S, Ono T, Shintani Y, Ohmori T, Mimuro J, Sakata Y. Plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 promotes a poor prognosis in sepsis-induced disseminated intravascular coagulation. Int J Hematol. 2006;84:398–405. doi: 10.1532/IJH97.05190.
    1. Pralong G, Calandra T, Glauser MP, Schellekens J, Verhoef J, Bachmann F, Kruithof EK. Plasminogen activator inhibitor 1: a new prognostic marker in septic shock. Thromb Haemost. 1989;61:459–462.
    1. Fisher CJ Jr, Yan SB. Protein C levels as a prognostic indicator of outcome in sepsis and related diseases. Crit Care Med. 2000;28:S49–S56. doi: 10.1097/00003246-200009001-00011.
    1. Heuer JG, Sharma GR, Gerlitz B, Zhang T, Bailey DL, Ding C, Berg DT, Perkins D, Stephens EJ, Holmes KC, Grubbs RL, Fynboe KA, Chen YF, Grinnell B, Jakubowski JA. Evaluation of protein C and other biomarkers as predictors of mortality in a rat cecal ligation and puncture model of sepsis. Crit Care Med. 2004;32:1570–1578. doi: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000129488.54282.1A.
    1. Lin SM, Wang YM, Lin HC, Lee KY, Huang CD, Liu CY, Wang CH, Kuo HP. Serum thrombomodulin level relates to the clinical course of disseminated intravascular coagulation, multiorgan dysfunction syndrome, and mortality in patients with sepsis. Crit Care Med. 2008;36:683–689. doi: 10.1097/CCM.0B013E31816537D8.
    1. Drake TA, Cheng J, Chang A, Taylor FB Jr. Expression of tissue factor, thrombomodulin, and E-selectin in baboons with lethal Escherichia coli sepsis. Am J Pathol. 1993;142:1458–1470.
    1. Mimuro J, Niimura M, Kashiwakura Y, Ishiwata A, Ono T, Ohmori T, Madoiwa S, Okada K, Matsuo O, Sakata Y. Unbalanced expression of ADAMTS13 and von Willebrand factor in mouse endotoxinemia. Thromb Res. 2008;122:91–97. doi: 10.1016/j.thromres.2007.09.011.
    1. Ono T, Mimuro J, Madoiwa S, Soejima K, Kashiwakura Y, Ishiwata A, Takano K, Ohmori T, Sakata Y. Severe secondary deficiency of von Willebrand factor-cleaving protease (ADAMTS13) in patients with sepsis-induced disseminated intravascular coagulation: its correlation with development of renal failure. Blood. 2006;107:528–534. doi: 10.1182/blood-2005-03-1087.
    1. Orfanos SE, Kotanidou A, Glynos C, Athanasiou C, Tsigkos S, Dimopoulou I, Sotiropoulou C, Zakynthinos S, Armaganidis A, Papapetropoulos A, Roussos C. Angiopoietin-2 is increased in severe sepsis: correlation with inflammatory mediators. Crit Care Med. 2007;35:199–206. doi: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000251640.77679.D7.
    1. Scherpereel A, Depontieu F, Grigoriu B, Cavestri B, Tsicopoulos A, Gentina T, Jourdain M, Pugin J, Tonnel AB, Lassalle P. Endocan, a new endothelial marker in human sepsis. Crit Care Med. 2006;34:532–537. doi: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000198525.82124.74.
    1. Tissier S, Lancel S, Marechal X, Mordon S, Depontieu F, Scherpereel A, Chopin C, Neviere R. Calpain inhibitors improve myocardial dysfunction and inflammation induced by endotoxin in rats. Shock. 2004;21:352–357. doi: 10.1097/00024382-200404000-00010.
    1. Boldt J, Muller M, Kuhn D, Linke LC, Hempelmann G. Circulating adhesion molecules in the critically ill: a comparison between trauma and sepsis patients. Intensive Care Med. 1996;22:122–128. doi: 10.1007/BF01720718.
    1. Redl H, Dinges HP, Buurman WA, Linden CJ van der, Pober JS, Cotran RS, Schlag G. Expression of endothelial leukocyte adhesion molecule-1 in septic but not traumatic/hypovolemic shock in the baboon. Am J Pathol. 1991;139:461–466.
    1. Rafat N, Hanusch C, Brinkkoetter PT, Schulte J, Brade J, Zijlstra JG, Woude FJ van der, van Ackern K, Yard BA, Beck GC. Increased circulating endothelial progenitor cells in septic patients: correlation with survival. Crit Care Med. 2007;35:1677–1684. doi: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000269034.86817.59.
    1. Presterl E, Lassnigg A, Mueller-Uri P, Wenisch C, El Menyawi I, Graninger W. High serum laminin concentrations in patients with Candida sepsis. Eur J Clin Invest. 1999;29:992–996. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2362.1999.00571.x.
    1. Ruokonen E, Ilkka L, Niskanen M, Takala J. Procalcitonin and neopterin as indicators of infection in critically ill patients. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2002;46:398–404. doi: 10.1034/j.1399-6576.2002.460412.x.
    1. Redl H, Schlag G, Togel E, Assicot M, Bohuon C. Procalcitonin release patterns in a baboon model of trauma and sepsis: relationship to cytokines and neopterin. Crit Care Med. 2000;28:3659–3663. doi: 10.1097/00003246-200011000-00021.
    1. Brueckmann M, Hoffmann U, Engelhardt C, Lang S, Fukudome K, Haase KK, Liebe V, Kaden JJ, Putensen C, Borggrefe M, Huhle G. Prognostic value of platelet-derived growth factor in patients with severe sepsis. Growth Factors. 2007;25:15–24. doi: 10.1080/08977190701272784.
    1. Cummings CJ, Sessler CN, Beall LD, Fisher BJ, Best AM, Fowler AA III. Soluble E-selectin levels in sepsis and critical illness. Correlation with infection and hemodynamic dysfunction. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997;156:431–437.
    1. Seidelin JB, Nielsen OH, Strom J. Soluble L-selectin levels predict survival in sepsis. Intensive Care Med. 2002;28:1613–1618. doi: 10.1007/s00134-002-1501-5.
    1. Lopez S, Prats N, Marco AJ. Expression of E-selectin, P-selectin, and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 during experimental murine listeriosis. Am J Pathol. 1999;155:1391–1397.
    1. Whalen MJ, Doughty LA, Carlos TM, Wisniewski SR, Kochanek PM, Carcillo JA. Intercellular adhesion molecule-1 and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 are increased in the plasma of children with sepsis-induced multiple organ failure. Crit Care Med. 2000;28:2600–2607. doi: 10.1097/00003246-200007000-00070.
    1. van Oosten M, Bilt E van de, de Vries HE, van Berkel TJ, Kuiper J. Vascular adhesion molecule-1 and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 expression on rat liver cells after lipopolysaccharide administration in vivo. Hepatology. 1995;22:1538–1546. doi: 10.1002/hep.1840220529.
    1. Flier M van der, van Leeuwen HJ, van Kessel KP, Kimpen JL, Hoepelman AI, Geelen SP. Plasma vascular endothelial growth factor in severe sepsis. Shock. 2005;23:35–38. doi: 10.1097/01.shk.0000150728.91155.41.
    1. Kim CO, Huh AJ, Kim MS, Chin BS, Han SH, Choi SH, Jeong SJ, Choi HK, Choi JY, Song YG, Kim JM. LPS-induced vascular endothelial growth factor expression in rat lung pericytes. Shock. 2008;30:92–97. doi: 10.1097/SHK.0b013e31815d19ad.
    1. Rubin DB, Wiener-Kronish JP, Murray JF, Green DR, Turner J, Luce JM, Montgomery AB, Marks JD, Matthay MA. Elevated von Willebrand factor antigen is an early plasma predictor of acute lung injury in nonpulmonary sepsis syndrome. J Clin Invest. 1990;86:474–480. doi: 10.1172/JCI114733.
    1. Novotny MJ, Turrentine MA, Johnson GS, Adams HR. Experimental endotoxemia increases plasma von Willebrand factor antigen concentrations in dogs with and without free-radical scavenger therapy. Circ Shock. 1987;23:205–213.
    1. Christ-Crain M, Morgenthaler NG, Struck J, Harbarth S, Bergmann A, Muller B. Mid-regional pro-adrenomedullin as a prognostic marker in sepsis: an observational study. Crit Care. 2005;9:R816–R824. doi: 10.1186/cc3885.
    1. Jiang W, Jiang HF, Cai DY, Pan CS, Qi YF, Pang YZ, Tang CS. Relationship between contents of adrenomedullin and distributions of neutral endopeptidase in blood and tissues of rats in septic shock. Regul Pept. 2004;118:199–208. doi: 10.1016/j.regpep.2003.12.013.
    1. Maccarrone M, De Petrocellis L, Bari M, Fezza F, Salvati S, Di MV, Finazzi-Agro A. Lipopolysaccharide downregulates fatty acid amide hydrolase expression and increases anandamide levels in human peripheral lymphocytes. Arch Biochem Biophys. 2001;393:321–328. doi: 10.1006/abbi.2001.2500.
    1. Deitz DM, Swartz KR, Wright M, Murphy E, Connell RS, Harrison MW. Effects of E. coli endotoxin on rat plasma angiotensin converting enzyme activity in vitro and in vivo. Circ Shock. 1987;21:23–29.
    1. Casey L, Krieger B, Kohler J, Rice C, Oparil S, Szidon P. Decreased serum angiotensin converting enzyme in adult respiratory distress syndrome associated with sepsis: a preliminary report. Crit Care Med. 1981;9:651–654. doi: 10.1097/00003246-198109000-00008.
    1. Wang Y, Liu Y, Ito Y, Hashiguchi T, Kitajima I, Yamakuchi M, Shimizu H, Matsuo S, Imaizumi H, Maruyama I. Simultaneous measurement of anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol by polymyxin B-selective adsorption and subsequent high-performance liquid chromatography analysis: increase in endogenous cannabinoids in the sera of patients with endotoxic shock. Anal Biochem. 2001;294:73–82. doi: 10.1006/abio.2001.5015.
    1. Seligman R, Papassotiriou J, Morgenthaler NG, Meisner M, Teixeira PJ. Copeptin, a novel prognostic biomarker in ventilator-associated pneumonia. Crit Care. 2008;12:R11. doi: 10.1186/cc6780.
    1. Hama N, Itoh H, Shirakami G, Suga S, Komatsu Y, Yoshimasa T, Tanaka I, Mori K, Nakao K. Detection of C-type natriuretic peptide in human circulation and marked increase of plasma CNP level in septic shock patients. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1994;198:1177–1182. doi: 10.1006/bbrc.1994.1166.
    1. Broner CW, O'Dorisio MS, Rosenberg RB, O'Dorisio TM. Cyclic nucleotides and vasoactive intestinal peptide production in a rabbit model of Escherichia coli septicemia. Am J Med Sci. 1995;309:267–277.
    1. Rosenberg RB, Broner CW, O'Dorisio MS. Modulation of cyclic guanosine monophosphate production during Escherichia coli septic shock. Biochem Med Metab Biol. 1994;51:149–155. doi: 10.1006/bmmb.1994.1019.
    1. Faury G, Wynnychenko TM, Cand F, Leone M, Jacob MP, Verdetti J, Boyle WA. Decreased circulating elastin peptide levels in humans with sepsis. Pathol Biol (Paris) 2005;53:443–447.
    1. Beer S, Weighardt H, Emmanuilidis K, Harzenetter MD, Matevossian E, Heidecke CD, Bartels H, Siewert JR, Holzmann B. Systemic neuropeptide levels as predictive indicators for lethal outcome in patients with postoperative sepsis. Crit Care Med. 2002;30:1794–1798. doi: 10.1097/00003246-200208000-00020.
    1. Arden WA, Fiscus RR, Wang X, Yang L, Maley R, Nielsen M, Lanzo S, Gross DR. Elevations in circulating calcitonin gene-related peptide correlate with hemodynamic deterioration during endotoxic shock in pigs. Circ Shock. 1994;42:147–153.
    1. Asmis LM, Asmis R, Sulzer I, Furlan M, Lammle B. Contact system activation in human sepsis - 47 kD HK, a marker of sepsis severity? Swiss Med Wkly. 2008;138:142–149.
    1. Arnalich F, Sanchez JF, Martinez M, Jimenez M, Lopez J, Vazquez JJ, Hernanz A. Changes in plasma concentrations of vasoactive neuropeptides in patients with sepsis and septic shock. Life Sci. 1995;56:75–81. doi: 10.1016/0024-3205(94)00416-P.
    1. Wang X, Jones SB, Zhou Z, Han C, Fiscus RR. Calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) and neuropeptide Y (NPY) levels are elevated in plasma and decreased in vena cava during endotoxin shock in the rat. Circ Shock. 1992;36:21–30.
    1. de Werra I, Jaccard C, Corradin SB, Chiolero R, Yersin B, Gallati H, Assicot M, Bohuon C, Baumgartner JD, Glauser MP, Heumann D. Cytokines, nitrite/nitrate, soluble tumor necrosis factor receptors, and procalcitonin concentrations: comparisons in patients with septic shock, cardiogenic shock, and bacterial pneumonia. Crit Care Med. 1997;25:607–613. doi: 10.1097/00003246-199704000-00009.
    1. van Amsterdam JG, Berg C van den, Zuidema J, te Biesebeek JD, Rokos H. Effect of septicaemia on the plasma levels of biopterin and nitric oxide metabolites in rats and rabbits. Biochem Pharmacol. 1996;52:1447–1451. doi: 10.1016/S0006-2952(96)00511-4.
    1. Zamir O, Hasselgren PO, Higashiguchi T, Frederick JA, Fischer JE. Effect of sepsis or cytokine administration on release of gut peptides. Am J Surg. 1992;163:181–184. doi: 10.1016/0002-9610(92)90273-T.
    1. Galley HF, Le Cras AE, Yassen K, Grant IS, Webster NR. Circulating tetrahydrobiopterin concentrations in patients with septic shock. Br J Anaesth. 2001;86:578–580. doi: 10.1093/bja/86.4.578.
    1. Hattori Y, Nakanishi N, Kasai K, Murakami Y, Shimoda S. Tetrahydrobiopterin and GTP cyclohydrolase I in a rat model of endotoxic shock: relation to nitric oxide synthesis. Exp Physiol. 1996;81:665–671.
    1. Jacob P, Mueller MH, Hahn J, Wolk I, Mayer P, Nagele U, Hennenlotter J, Stenzl A, Konigsrainer A, Glatzle J. Alterations of neuropeptides in the human gut during peritonitis. Langenbecks Arch Surg. 2007;392:267–271. doi: 10.1007/s00423-007-0168-3.
    1. Brandtzaeg P, Oktedalen O, Kierulf P, Opstad PK. Elevated VIP and endotoxin plasma levels in human gram-negative septic shock. Regul Pept. 1989;24:37–44. doi: 10.1016/0167-0115(89)90209-7.
    1. Morgenthaler NG, Struck J, Christ-Crain M, Bergmann A, Muller B. Pro-atrial natriuretic peptide is a prognostic marker in sepsis, similar to the APACHE II score: an observational study. Crit Care. 2005;9:R37–R45. doi: 10.1186/cc3015.
    1. Hartemink KJ, Groeneveld AB, de Groot MC, Strack van Schijndel RJ, van Kamp G, Thijs LG. alpha-atrial natriuretic peptide, cyclic guanosine monophosphate, and endothelin in plasma as markers of myocardial depression in human septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2001;29:80–87. doi: 10.1097/00003246-200101000-00019.
    1. Post F, Weilemann LS, Messow CM, Sinning C, Munzel T. B-type natriuretic peptide as a marker for sepsis-induced myocardial depression in intensive care patients. Crit Care Med. 2008;36:3030–3037. doi: 10.1097/CCM.0b013e31818b9153.
    1. Kandil E, Burack J, Sawas A, Bibawy H, Schwartzman A, Zenilman ME, Bluth MH. B-type natriuretic peptide: a biomarker for the diagnosis and risk stratification of patients with septic shock. Arch Surg. 2008;143:242–246. doi: 10.1001/archsurg.2007.69.
    1. Rivers EP, McCord J, Otero R, Jacobsen G, Loomba M. Clinical utility of B-type natriuretic peptide in early severe sepsis and septic shock. J Intensive Care Med. 2007;22:363–373. doi: 10.1177/0885066607307523.
    1. Struck J, Uhlein M, Morgenthaler NG, Furst W, Hoflich C, Bahrami S, Bergmann A, Volk HD, Redl H. Release of the mitochondrial enzyme carbamoyl phosphate synthase under septic conditions. Shock. 2005;23:533–538.
    1. Piechota M, Banach M, Irzmanski R, Barylski M, Piechota-Urbanska M, Kowalski J, Pawlicki L. Plasma endothelin-1 levels in septic patients. J Intensive Care Med. 2007;22:232–239. doi: 10.1177/0885066607301444.
    1. Nakamura T, Kasai K, Sekiguchi Y, Banba N, Takahashi K, Emoto T, Hattori Y, Shimoda S. Elevation of plasma endothelin concentrations during endotoxin shock in dogs. Eur J Pharmacol. 1991;205:277–282. doi: 10.1016/0014-2999(91)90910-I.
    1. Brauner JS, Rohde LE, Clausell N. Circulating endothelin-1 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha: early predictors of mortality in patients with septic shock. Intensive Care Med. 2000;26:305–313. doi: 10.1007/s001340051154.
    1. Schuetz P, Stolz D, Mueller B, Morgenthaler NG, Struck J, Mueller C, Bingisser R, Tamm M, Christ-Crain M. Endothelin-1 precursor peptides correlate with severity of disease and outcome in patients with community acquired pneumonia. BMC Infect Dis. 2008;8:22. doi: 10.1186/1471-2334-8-22.
    1. Jha P, Jacobs H, Bose D, Wang R, Yang J, Light RB, Mink S. Effects of E. coli sepsis and myocardial depressant factor on interval-force relations in dog ventricle. Am J Physiol. 1993;264:H1402–H1410.
    1. Dahl B, Schiodt FV, Ott P, Wians F, Lee WM, Balko J, O'Keefe GE. Plasma concentration of Gc-globulin is associated with organ dysfunction and sepsis after injury. Crit Care Med. 2003;31:152–156. doi: 10.1097/00003246-200301000-00024.
    1. Hsu AA, Fenton K, Weinstein S, Carpenter J, Dalton H, Bell MJ. Neurological injury markers in children with septic shock. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2008;9:245–251. doi: 10.1097/PCC.0b013e3181727b22.
    1. Koo DJ, Zhou M, Chaudry IH, Wang P. Plasma alpha-glutathione S-transferase: a sensitive indicator of hepatocellular damage during polymicrobial sepsis. Arch Surg. 2000;135:198–203. doi: 10.1001/archsurg.135.2.198.
    1. Nayeri F, Nilsson I, Brudin L, Fryden A, Soderstrom C, Forsberg P. High serum hepatocyte growth factor levels in the acute stage of community-acquired infectious diseases. Scand J Infect Dis. 2002;34:127–130. doi: 10.1080/00365540110077236.
    1. Masson S, Daveau M, Francois A, Bodenant C, Hiron M, Teniere P, Salier JP, Scotte M. Up-regulated expression of HGF in rat liver cells after experimental endotoxemia: a potential pathway for enhancement of liver regeneration. Growth Factors. 2001;18:237–250. doi: 10.3109/08977190109029113.
    1. Igonin AA, Armstrong VW, Shipkova M, Kukes VG, Oellerich M. The monoethylglycinexylidide (MEGX) test as a marker of hepatic dysfunction in septic patients with pneumonia. Clin Chem Lab Med. 2000;38:1125–1128. doi: 10.1515/CCLM.2000.169.
    1. McKindley DS, Chichester C, Raymond R. Effect of endotoxin shock on the clearance of lidocaine and indocyanine green in the perfused rat liver. Shock. 1999;12:468–472. doi: 10.1097/00024382-199912000-00009.
    1. Ji Y, Ren X, Zhao Y, Dong L, Wu L, Su J. Role of intracardiac angiotensin II in cardiac dysfunction of rat during septic shock. Chin Med J (Engl) 1996;109:864–867.
    1. Nguyen DN, Spapen H, Su F, Schiettecatte J, Shi L, Hachimi-Idrissi S, Huyghens L. Elevated serum levels of S-100beta protein and neuron-specific enolase are associated with brain injury in patients with severe sepsis and septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2006;34:1967–1974. doi: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000217218.51381.49.
    1. Tribl B, Filipp D, Bodeker H, Yu P, Hammerrmuller I, McKerlie C, Keim V, Sibbald WJ. Pseudomonas pneumonia-mediated sepsis induces expression of pancreatitis-associated protein-I in rat pancreas. Pancreas. 2004;29:33–40. doi: 10.1097/00006676-200407000-00053.
    1. Ye SQ, Simon BA, Maloney JP, Zambelli-Weiner A, Gao L, Grant A, Easley RB, McVerry BJ, Tuder RM, Standiford T, Brower RG, Barnes KC, Garcia JG. Pre-B-cell colony-enhancing factor as a potential novel biomarker in acute lung injury. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2005;171:361–370. doi: 10.1164/rccm.200404-563OC.
    1. Larsson A, Lipcsey M, Sjolin J, Hansson LO, Eriksson MB. Slight increase of serum S-100B during porcine endotoxemic shock may indicate blood-brain barrier damage. Anesth Analg. 2005;101:1465–1469. doi: 10.1213/01.ANE.0000180193.29655.6A.
    1. Lewis JF, Veldhuizen R, Possmayer F, Sibbald W, Whitsett J, Qanbar R, McCaig L. Altered alveolar surfactant is an early marker of acute lung injury in septic adult sheep. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994;150:123–130.
    1. Endo S, Sato N, Nakae H, Yamada Y, Makabe H, Abe H, Imai S, Wakabayashi G, Inada K, Sato S. Surfactant protein A and D (SP-A, AP-D) levels in patients with septic ARDS. Res Commun Mol Pathol Pharmacol. 2002;111:245–251.
    1. Mehta NJ, Khan IA, Gupta V, Jani K, Gowda RM, Smith PR. Cardiac troponin I predicts myocardial dysfunction and adverse outcome in septic shock. Int J Cardiol. 2004;95:13–17. doi: 10.1016/j.ijcard.2003.02.005.
    1. Cicarelli DD, Vieira JE, Bensenor FE. Comparison of C-reactive protein and serum amyloid a protein in septic shock patients. Mediators Inflamm. 2008;2008:631414. doi: 10.1155/2008/631414.
    1. Orro T, Sankari S, Pudas T, Oksanen A, Soveri T. Acute phase response in reindeer after challenge with Escherichia coli endotoxin. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis. 2004;27:413–422. doi: 10.1016/j.cimid.2004.01.005.
    1. Chiarla C, Giovannini I, Siegel JH. Patterns of correlation of plasma ceruloplasmin in sepsis. J Surg Res. 2008;144:107–110. doi: 10.1016/j.jss.2007.03.024.
    1. Suri M, Sharma VK, Thirupuram S. Evaluation of ceruloplasmin in neonatal septicemia. Indian Pediatr. 1991;28:489–493.
    1. Couto RC, Barbosa JA, Pedrosa TM, Biscione FM. C-reactive protein-guided approach may shorten length of antimicrobial treatment of culture-proven late-onset sepsis: an intervention study. Braz J Infect Dis. 2007;11:240–245. doi: 10.1590/S1413-86702007000200015.
    1. Seller-Perez G, Herrera-Gutierrez ME, Lebron-Gallardo M, Toro-Peinado I, Martin-Hita L, Porras-Ballesteros JA. [Serum C-reactive protein as a marker of outcome and infection in critical care patients] Med Clin (Barc) 2005;125:761–765. doi: 10.1016/S0025-7753(05)72184-9.
    1. Garcia PC, Longhi F, Branco RG, Piva JP, Lacks D, Tasker RC. Ferritin levels in children with severe sepsis and septic shock. Acta Paediatr. 2007;96:1829–1831. doi: 10.1111/j.1651-2227.2007.00564.x.
    1. Linden EC Brinkman-van der, van Ommen EC, van Dijk W. Glycosylation of alpha 1-acid glycoprotein in septic shock: changes in degree of branching and in expression of sialyl Lewis(x) groups. Glycoconj J. 1996;13:27–31. doi: 10.1007/BF01049676.
    1. Scotte M, Daveau M, Hiron M, Delers F, Lemeland JF, Teniere P, Lebreton JP. Interleukin-6 (IL-6) and acute-phase proteins in rats with biliary sepsis. Eur Cytokine Netw. 1991;2:177–182.
    1. Li H, Rose MJ, Tran L, Zhang J, Miranda LP, James CA, Sasu BJ. Development of a method for the sensitive and quantitative determination of hepcidin in human serum using LC-MS/MS. J Pharmacol Toxicol Methods. 2009;59(3):171–180. doi: 10.1016/j.vascn.2009.02.004.
    1. Oude Nijhuis CS, Vellenga E, Daenen SM, Graaf WT van der, Gietema JA, Groen HJ, Kamps WA, De Bont ES. Lipopolysaccharide-binding protein: a possible diagnostic marker for Gram-negative bacteremia in neutropenic cancer patients. Intensive Care Med. 2003;29:2157–2161. doi: 10.1007/s00134-003-2026-2.
    1. Becker KL, Snider R, Nylen ES. Procalcitonin assay in systemic inflammation, infection, and sepsis: clinical utility and limitations. Crit Care Med. 2008;36:941–952. doi: 10.1097/CCM.0B013E318165BABB.
    1. Muller B, Peri G, Doni A, Torri V, Landmann R, Bottazzi B, Mantovani A. Circulating levels of the long pentraxin PTX3 correlate with severity of infection in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med. 2001;29:1404–1407. doi: 10.1097/00003246-200107000-00017.
    1. al Ramadi BK, Ellis M, Pasqualini F, Mantovani A. Selective induction of pentraxin 3, a soluble innate immune pattern recognition receptor, in infectious episodes in patients with haematological malignancy. Clin Immunol. 2004;112:221–224. doi: 10.1016/j.clim.2004.03.012.
    1. Andrejko KM, Chen J, Deutschman CS. Intrahepatic STAT-3 activation and acute phase gene expression predict outcome after CLP sepsis in the rat. Am J Physiol. 1998;275:G1423–G1429.
    1. Wang XY, Li WQ, Lu J, Li N, Li JS. Lipopolysaccharide decreasing albumin expression in rat hepatocytes. Hepatobiliary Pancreat Dis Int. 2005;4:410–415.
    1. Maury E, Blanchard HS, Chauvin P, Guglielminotti J, Alzieu M, Guidet B, Offenstadt G. Circulating endotoxin and antiendotoxin antibodies during severe sepsis and septic shock. J Crit Care. 2003;18:115–120. doi: 10.1053/jcrc.2003.50004.
    1. Schippers EF, Berbee JF, van Disseldorp IM, Versteegh MI, Havekes LM, Rensen PC, van Dissel JT. Preoperative apolipoprotein CI levels correlate positively with the proinflammatory response in patients experiencing endotoxemia following elective cardiac surgery. Intensive Care Med. 2008;34:1492–1497. doi: 10.1007/s00134-008-1077-9.
    1. Berbee JF, Mooijaart SP, de Craen AJ, Havekes LM, van Heemst D, Rensen PC, Westendorp RG. Plasma apolipoprotein CI protects against mortality from infection in old age. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2008;63:122–126.
    1. Berbee JF, Hoogt CC van der, de Haas CJ, van Kessel KP, Dallinga-Thie GM, Romijn JA, Havekes LM, van Leeuwen HJ, Rensen PC. Plasma apolipoprotein CI correlates with increased survival in patients with severe sepsis. Intensive Care Med. 2008;34:907–911. doi: 10.1007/s00134-008-1006-y.
    1. Adrie C, Bachelet M, Vayssier-Taussat M, Russo-Marie F, Bouchaert I, Adib-Conquy M, Cavaillon JM, Pinsky MR, Dhainaut JF, Polla BS. Mitochondrial membrane potential and apoptosis peripheral blood monocytes in severe human sepsis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001;164:389–395.
    1. Nakamura T, Ebihara I, Shoji H, Ushiyama C, Suzuki S, Koide H. Treatment with polymyxin B-immobilized fiber reduces platelet activation in septic shock patients: decrease in plasma levels of soluble P-selectin, platelet factor 4 and beta-thromboglobulin. Inflamm Res. 1999;48:171–175. doi: 10.1007/s000110050442.
    1. Delogu G, Famularo G, Tellan G, Marandola M, Antonucci A, Signore M, Marcellini S, Moretti S. Lymphocyte apoptosis, caspase activation and inflammatory response in septic shock. Infection. 2008;36:485–487. doi: 10.1007/s15010-008-7070-y.
    1. Delogu G, Famularo G, Amati F, Signore L, Antonucci A, Trinchieri V, Di Marzio L, Cifone MG. Ceramide concentrations in septic patients: a possible marker of multiple organ dysfunction syndrome. Crit Care Med. 1999;27:2413–2417. doi: 10.1097/00003246-199911000-00015.
    1. Memis D, Gursoy O, Tasdogan M, Sut N, Kurt I, Ture M, Karamanlioglu B. High C-reactive protein and low cholesterol levels are prognostic markers of survival in severe sepsis. J Clin Anesth. 2007;19:186–191. doi: 10.1016/j.jclinane.2006.10.008.
    1. Stove S, Welte T, Wagner TO, Kola A, Klos A, Bautsch W, Kohl J. Circulating complement proteins in patients with sepsis or systemic inflammatory response syndrome. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol. 1996;3:175–183.
    1. Gressner OA, Koch A, Sanson E, Trautwein C, Tacke F. High C5a levels are associated with increased mortality in sepsis patients--no enhancing effect by actin-free Gc-globulin. Clin Biochem. 2008;41:974–980. doi: 10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2008.05.005.
    1. Schuerholz T, Leuwer M, Cobas-Meyer M, Vangerow B, Kube F, Kirschfink M, Marx G. Terminal complement complex in septic shock with capillary leakage: marker of complement activation? Eur J Anaesthesiol. 2005;22:541–547. doi: 10.1017/S0265021505000931.
    1. Guisset O, Dilhuydy MS, Thiebaut R, Lefevre J, Camou F, Sarrat A, Gabinski C, Moreau JF, Blanco P. Decrease in circulating dendritic cells predicts fatal outcome in septic shock. Intensive Care Med. 2007;33:148–152. doi: 10.1007/s00134-006-0436-7.
    1. Efron PA, Martins A, Minnich D, Tinsley K, Ungaro R, Bahjat FR, Hotchkiss R, Clare-Salzler M, Moldawer LL. Characterization of the systemic loss of dendritic cells in murine lymph nodes during polymicrobial sepsis. J Immunol. 2004;173:3035–3043.
    1. Bergmann A, Bohuon C. Decrease of serum dipeptidylpeptidase activity in severe sepsis patients: relationship to procalcitonin. Clin Chim Acta. 2002;321:123–126. doi: 10.1016/S0009-8981(02)00042-6.
    1. Meinhold H, Gramm HJ, Meissner W, Zimmermann J, Schwander J, Dennhardt R, Voigt K. Elevated serum diiodotyrosine (DIT) in severe infections and sepsis: DIT, a possible new marker of leukocyte activity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1991;72:945–953. doi: 10.1210/jcem-72-4-945.
    1. Morlion BJ, Torwesten E, Kuhn KS, Puchstein C, Furst P. Cysteinyl-leukotriene generation as a biomarker for survival in the critically ill. Crit Care Med. 2000;28:3655–3658. doi: 10.1097/00003246-200011000-00020.
    1. Uozumi N, Kita Y, Shimizu T. Modulation of lipid and protein mediators of inflammation by cytosolic phospholipase A2alpha during experimental sepsis. J Immunol. 2008;181:3558–3566.
    1. Peters KM, Koberg K, Rosendahl T, Haubeck HD. PMN elastase in bone and joint infections. Int Orthop. 1994;18:352–355. doi: 10.1007/BF00187079.
    1. Geiger R, Sokal S, Trefz G, Siebeck M, Hoffmann H. PMN elastase and leukocyte neutral proteinase inhibitor (LNPI) from granulocytes as inflammation markers in experimental-septicemia. Adv Exp Med Biol. 1988;240:465–471.
    1. Tegtmeyer FK, Horn C, Richter A, van Wees J. Elastase alpha 1 proteinase inhibitor complex, granulocyte count, ratio of immature to total granulocyte count, and C-reactive protein in neonatal septicaemia. Eur J Pediatr. 1992;151:353–356. doi: 10.1007/BF02113257.
    1. Duswald KH, Jochum M, Schramm W, Fritz H. Released granulocytic elastase: an indicator of pathobiochemical alterations in septicemia after abdominal surgery. Surgery. 1985;98:892–899.
    1. Tamion F, Cam-Duchez V, Menard JF, Girault C, Coquerel A, Bonmarchand G. Serum erythropoietin levels in septic shock. Anaesth Intensive Care. 2005;33:578–584.
    1. Puthucheary SD, Nathan SA. Comparison of serum F2 isoprostane levels in diabetic patients and diabetic patients infected with Burkholderia pseudomallei. Singapore Med J. 2008;49:117–120.
    1. Tanaka M, Yanagihara I, Takahashi H, Hamaguchi M, Nakahira K, Sakata I. The mRNA expression of fatty acid amide hydrolase in human whole blood correlates with sepsis. J Endotoxin Res. 2007;13:35–38. doi: 10.1177/0968051907078607.
    1. Rhodes A, Wort SJ, Thomas H, Collinson P, Bennett ED. Plasma DNA concentration as a predictor of mortality and sepsis in critically ill patients. Crit Care. 2006;10:R60. doi: 10.1186/cc4894.
    1. Perry SE, Mostafa SM, Wenstone R, McLaughlin PJ. Low plasma granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor is an indicator of poor prognosis in sepsis. Intensive Care Med. 2002;28:981–984. doi: 10.1007/s00134-002-1335-1.
    1. Kennon C, Overturf G, Bessman S, Sierra E, Smith KJ, Brann B. Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor as a marker for bacterial infection in neonates. J Pediatr. 1996;128:765–769. doi: 10.1016/S0022-3476(96)70327-X.
    1. Wang H, Cheng B, Chen Q, Wu S, Lv C, Xie G, Jin Y, Fang X. Time course of plasma gelsolin concentrations during severe sepsis in critically ill surgical patients. Crit Care. 2008;12:R106. doi: 10.1186/cc6988.
    1. Hataya Y, Akamizu T, Hosoda H, Kanamoto N, Moriyama K, Kangawa K, Takaya K, Nakao K. Alterations of plasma ghrelin levels in rats with lipopolysaccharide-induced wasting syndrome and effects of ghrelin treatment on the syndrome. Endocrinology. 2003;144:5365–5371. doi: 10.1210/en.2003-0427.
    1. Yilmaz Z, Ilcol YO, Ulus IH. Endotoxin increases plasma leptin and ghrelin levels in dogs. Crit Care Med. 2008;36:828–833. doi: 10.1097/01.CCM.0B013E3181611F5AA.
    1. Borgel D, Clauser S, Bornstain C, Bieche I, Bissery A, Remones V, Fagon JY, Aiach M, Diehl JL. Elevated growth-arrest-specific protein 6 plasma levels in patients with severe sepsis. Crit Care Med. 2006;34:219–222. doi: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000195014.56254.8A.
    1. Ofenstein JP, Heidemann S, Juett-Wilstermann A, Sarnaik A. Expression of stress proteins HSP 72 & HSP 32 in response to endotoxemia. Ann Clin Lab Sci. 2000;30:92–98.
    1. Delogu G, Lo BL, Marandola M, Famularo G, Lenti L, Ippoliti F, Signore L. Heat shock protein (HSP70) expression in septic patients. J Crit Care. 1997;12:188–192. doi: 10.1016/S0883-9441(97)90031-9.
    1. Weiss YG, Bouwman A, Gehan B, Schears G, Raj N, Deutschman CS. Cecal ligation and double puncture impairs heat shock protein 70 (HSP-70) expression in the lungs of rats. Shock. 2000;13:19–23. doi: 10.1097/00024382-200013010-00004.
    1. Ramaglia V, Harapa GM, White N, Buck LT. Bacterial infection and tissue-specific Hsp72, -73 and -90 expression in western painted turtles. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol. 2004;138:139–148. doi: 10.1016/j.cca.2004.06.007.
    1. Monneret G, Voirin N, Krawice-Radanne I, Bohe J, Lepape A, Rouas-Freiss N, Carosella ED. Soluble human leukocyte antigen-G5 in septic shock: marked and persisting elevation as a predictor of survival. Crit Care Med. 2007;35:1942–1947. doi: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000277039.84372.1C.
    1. Li L, Bhatia M, Zhu YZ, Zhu YC, Ramnath RD, Wang ZJ, Anuar FB, Whiteman M, Salto-Tellez M, Moore PK. Hydrogen sulfide is a novel mediator of lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation in the mouse. FASEB J. 2005;19:1196–1198.
    1. Berg S, Brodin B, Hesselvik F, Laurent TC, Maller R. Elevated levels of plasma hyaluronan in septicaemia. Scand J Clin Lab Invest. 1988;48:727–732. doi: 10.3109/00365518809088752.
    1. Berg S, Jansson I, Hesselvik FJ, Laurent TC, Lennquist S, Walther S. Hyaluronan: relationship to hemodynamics and survival in porcine injury and sepsis. Crit Care Med. 1992;20:1315–1321. doi: 10.1097/00003246-199209000-00020.
    1. Lacroix-Desmazes S, Bayry J, Kaveri SV, Hayon-Sonsino D, Thorenoor N, Charpentier J, Luyt CE, Mira JP, Nagaraja V, Kazatchkine MD, Dhainaut JF, Mallet VO. High levels of catalytic antibodies correlate with favorable outcome in sepsis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2005;102:4109–4113. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0500586102.
    1. Opal SM, Lim YP, Siryaporn E, Moldawer LL, Pribble JP, Palardy JE, Souza S. Longitudinal studies of inter-alpha inhibitor proteins in severely septic patients: a potential clinical marker and mediator of severe sepsis. Crit Care Med. 2007;35:387–392. doi: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000253810.08230.83.
    1. Soriano AO, Jy W, Chirinos JA, Valdivia MA, Velasquez HS, Jimenez JJ, Horstman LL, Kett DH, Schein RM, Ahn YS. Levels of endothelial and platelet microparticles and their interactions with leukocytes negatively correlate with organ dysfunction and predict mortality in severe sepsis. Crit Care Med. 2005;33:2540–2546. doi: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000186414.86162.03.
    1. Nguyen HB, Rivers EP, Knoblich BP, Jacobsen G, Muzzin A, Ressler JA, Tomlanovich MC. Early lactate clearance is associated with improved outcome in severe sepsis and septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2004;32:1637–1642. doi: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000132904.35713.A7.
    1. Haji-Michael PG, Ladriere L, Sener A, Vincent JL, Malaisse WJ. Leukocyte glycolysis and lactate output in animal sepsis and ex vivo human blood. Metabolism. 1999;48:779–785. doi: 10.1016/S0026-0495(99)90179-8.
    1. Gutteberg TJ, Rokke O, Jorgensen T, Andersen O. Lactoferrin as an indicator of septicemia and endotoxemia in pigs. Scand J Infect Dis. 1988;20:659–666. doi: 10.3109/00365548809035667.
    1. Soderquist B, Sundqvist KG, Jones I, Holmberg H, Vikerfors T. Interleukin-6, C-reactive protein, lactoferrin and white blood cell count in patients with S. aureus septicemia. Scand J Infect Dis. 1995;27:375–380. doi: 10.3109/00365549509032734.
    1. Tzanela M, Orfanos SE, Tsirantonaki M, Kotanidou A, Sotiropoulou C, Christophoraki M, Vassiliadi D, Thalassinos NC, Roussos C. Leptin alterations in the course of sepsis in humans. In Vivo. 2006;20:565–570.
    1. Jones JW Jr, Su S, Jones MB, Heniford BT, McIntyre K, Granger DK. Serum lysozyme activity can differentiate infection from rejection in organ transplant recipients. J Surg Res. 1999;84:134–137. doi: 10.1006/jsre.1999.5628.
    1. Hoffmann U, Bertsch T, Dvortsak E, Liebetrau C, Lang S, Liebe V, Huhle G, Borggrefe M, Brueckmann M. Matrix-metalloproteinases and their inhibitors are elevated in severe sepsis: prognostic value of TIMP-1 in severe sepsis. Scand J Infect Dis. 2006;38:867–872. doi: 10.1080/00365540600702058.
    1. Piliponsky AM, Chen CC, Nishimura T, Metz M, Rios EJ, Dobner PR, Wada E, Wada K, Zacharias S, Mohanasundaram UM, Faix JD, Abrink M, Pejler G, Pearl RG, Tsai M, Galli SJ. Neurotensin increases mortality and mast cells reduce neurotensin levels in a mouse model of sepsis. Nat Med. 2008;14:392–398. doi: 10.1038/nm1738.
    1. Oudenhoven IM, Klaasen HL, Lapre JA, Weerkamp AH, Van der MR. Nitric oxide-derived urinary nitrate as a marker of intestinal bacterial translocation in rats. Gastroenterology. 1994;107:47–53.
    1. Williams JP, Thompson JP, Young SP, Gold SJ, McDonald J, Rowbotham DJ, Lambert DG. Nociceptin and urotensin-II concentrations in critically ill patients with sepsis. Br J Anaesth. 2008;100:810–814. doi: 10.1093/bja/aen093.
    1. Arnalich F, Garcia-Palomero E, Lopez J, Jimenez M, Madero R, Renart J, Vazquez JJ, Montiel C. Predictive value of nuclear factor kappaB activity and plasma cytokine levels in patients with sepsis. Infect Immun. 2000;68:1942–1945. doi: 10.1128/IAI.68.4.1942-1945.2000.
    1. Zeerleder S, Zwart B, Wuillemin WA, Aarden LA, Groeneveld AB, Caliezi C, van Nieuwenhuijze AE, van Mierlo GJ, Eerenberg AJ, Lammle B, Hack CE. Elevated nucleosome levels in systemic inflammation and sepsis. Crit Care Med. 2003;31:1947–1951. doi: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000074719.40109.95.
    1. Shimizu T, Endo Y, Tabata T, Mori T, Hanasawa K, Tsuchiya M, Tani T. Diagnostic and predictive value of the silkworm larvae plasma test for postoperative infection following gastrointestinal surgery. Crit Care Med. 2005;33:1288–1295. doi: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000165810.97971.DD.
    1. Yano K, Liaw PC, Mullington JM, Shih SC, Okada H, Bodyak N, Kang PM, Toltl L, Belikoff B, Buras J, Simms BT, Mizgerd JP, Carmeliet P, Karumanchi SA, Aird WC. Vascular endothelial growth factor is an important determinant of sepsis morbidity and mortality. J Exp Med. 2006;203:1447–1458. doi: 10.1084/jem.20060375.
    1. Chiarla C, Giovannini I, Siegel JH, Boldrini G, Castagneto M. The relationship between plasma taurine and other amino acid levels in human sepsis. J Nutr. 2000;130:2222–2227.
    1. Poeze M, Luiking YC, Breedveld P, Manders S, Deutz NE. Decreased plasma glutamate in early phases of septic shock with acute liver dysfunction is an independent predictor of survival. Clin Nutr. 2008;27:523–530. doi: 10.1016/j.clnu.2008.04.006.
    1. Basler T, Meier-Hellmann A, Bredle D, Reinhart K. Amino acid imbalance early in septic encephalopathy. Intensive Care Med. 2002;28:293–298. doi: 10.1007/s00134-002-1217-6.
    1. Ruiz Martin G, Prieto PJ, Veiga dC, Gomez LL, Barberan J, Gonzalez Landa JM, Fernandez C. Plasma fibronectin as a marker of sepsis. Int J Infect Dis. 2004;8:236–243. doi: 10.1016/j.ijid.2003.10.005.
    1. Mavrommatis AC, Theodoridis T, Economou M, Kotanidou A, El Ali M, Christopoulou-Kokkinou V, Zakynthinos SG. Activation of the fibrinolytic system and utilization of the coagulation inhibitors in sepsis: comparison with severe sepsis and septic shock. Intensive Care Med. 2001;27:1853–1859. doi: 10.1007/s00134-001-1139-8.
    1. Tamion F, Cam-Duchez V, Menard JF, Girault C, Coquerel A, Bonmarchand G. Erythropoietin and renin as biological markers in critically ill patients. Crit Care. 2004;8:R328–R335. doi: 10.1186/cc2902.
    1. Sunden-Cullberg J, Nystrom T, Lee ML, Mullins GE, Tokics L, Andersson J, Norrby-Teglund A, Treutiger CJ. Pronounced elevation of resistin correlates with severity of disease in severe sepsis and septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2007;35:1536–1542. doi: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000266536.14736.03.
    1. Sakr Y, Reinhart K, Bloos F, Marx G, Russwurm S, Bauer M, Brunkhorst F. Time course and relationship between plasma selenium concentrations, systemic inflammatory response, sepsis, and multiorgan failure. Br J Anaesth. 2007;98:775–784. doi: 10.1093/bja/aem091.
    1. Hollenbach B, Morgenthaler NG, Struck J, Alonso C, Bergmann A, Kohrle J, Schomburg L. New assay for the measurement of selenoprotein P as a sepsis biomarker from serum. J Trace Elem Med Biol. 2008;22:24–32. doi: 10.1016/j.jtemb.2007.11.003.
    1. Ramzi J, Mohamed Z, Yosr B, Karima K, Raihane B, Lamia A, Hela BA, Zaher B, Balkis M. Predictive factors of septic shock and mortality in neutropenic patients. Hematology. 2007;12:543–548. doi: 10.1080/10245330701384237.
    1. Claus RA, Bunck AC, Bockmeyer CL, Brunkhorst FM, Losche W, Kinscherf R, Deigner HP. Role of increased sphingomyelinase activity in apoptosis and organ failure of patients with severe sepsis. FASEB J. 2005;19:1719–1721.
    1. Mitsuhashi H, Ikeuchi H, Yamashita S, Kuroiwa T, Kaneko Y, Hiromura K, Ueki K, Nojima Y. Increased levels of serum sulfite in patients with acute pneumonia. Shock. 2004;21:99–102. doi: 10.1097/01.shk.0000105501.75189.85.
    1. Briassoulis G, Papassotiriou I, Mavrikiou M, Lazaropoulou C, Margeli A. Longitudinal course and clinical significance of TGF-beta1, sL- and sE-Selectins and sICAM-1 levels during severe acute stress in children. Clin Biochem. 2007;40:299–304. doi: 10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2006.11.015.
    1. Hafez HM, Berwanger CS, Lintott P, Delis K, Wolfe JH, Mansfield AO, Stansby G. Endotoxemia during supraceliac aortic crossclamping is associated with suppression of the monocyte CD14 mechanism: possible role of transforming growth factor-beta1. J Vasc Surg. 2000;31:520–531. doi: 10.1016/S0741-5214(00)90314-8.
    1. Wang H, Yu XY, Sun M, Pan JK, Gao H. [Effects of glutamine on matrix metalloproteinase-3 and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-3 expressions in myocardium of rats with sepsis] Zhonghua Er Ke Za Zhi. 2006;44:587–591.
    1. Giovannini I, Chiarla C, Giuliante F, Vellone M, Ardito F, Pallavicini F, Nuzzo G. Biochemical and clinical correlates of hypouricemia in surgical and critically ill patients. Clin Chem Lab Med. 2007;45:1207–1210. doi: 10.1515/CCLM.2007.502.
    1. Cheng WE, Shih CM, Hang LW, Wu KY, Yang HL, Hsu WH, Hsia TC. Urinary biomarker of oxidative stress correlating with outcome in critically septic patients. Intensive Care Med. 2007;33:1187–1190. doi: 10.1007/s00134-007-0628-9.
    1. Otani K, Shimizu S, Chijiiwa K, Yamaguchi K, Kuroki S, Tanaka M. Increased urinary excretion of bilirubin oxidative metabolites in septic patients: a new marker for oxidative stress in vivo. J Surg Res. 2001;96:44–49. doi: 10.1006/jsre.2000.6036.
    1. Weiss M, Elsharkawi M, Welt K, Schneider EM. Transient leukocytosis, granulocyte colony-stimulating factor plasma concentrations, and apoptosis determined by binding of annexin V by peripheral leukocytes in patients with severe sepsis. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2003;1010:742–747. doi: 10.1196/annals.1299.134.
    1. Luchtemberg MN, Petronilho F, Constantino L, Gelain DP, Andrades M, Ritter C, Moreira JC, Streck EL, Dal Pizzol F. Xanthine oxidase activity in patients with sepsis. Clin Biochem. 2008;41:1186–1190. doi: 10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2008.07.015.
    1. Cardelli P, Ferraironi M, Amodeo R, Tabacco F, De Blasi RA, Nicoletti M, Sessa R, Petrucca A, Costante A, Cipriani P. Evaluation of neutrophil CD64 expression and procalcitonin as useful markers in early diagnosis of sepsis. Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol. 2008;21:43–49.
    1. Gibot S, Cravoisy A, Levy B, Bene MC, Faure G, Bollaert PE. Soluble triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells and the diagnosis of pneumonia. N Engl J Med. 2004;350:451–458. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa031544.
    1. Gibot S, Kolopp-Sarda MN, Bene MC, Cravoisy A, Levy B, Faure GC, Bollaert PE. Plasma level of a triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells-1: its diagnostic accuracy in patients with suspected sepsis. Ann Intern Med. 2004;141:9–15.

Source: PubMed

Sponsors and Collaborators

Medical Conditions

Drug Interventions

3
Subscribe