Rationale for and approach to preoperative opioid weaning: a preoperative optimization protocol

Heath McAnally, Heath McAnally

Abstract

The practice of chronic opioid prescription for chronic non-cancer pain has come under considerable scrutiny within the past several years as mounting evidence reveals a generally unfavorable risk to benefit ratio and the nation reels from the grim mortality statistics associated with the opioid epidemic. Patients struggling with chronic pain tend to use opioids and also seek out operative intervention for their complaints, which combination may be leading to increased postoperative "acute-on-chronic" pain and fueling worsened chronic pain and opioid dependence. Besides worsened postoperative pain, a growing body of literature, reviewed herein, indicates that preoperative opioid use is associated with significantly worsened surgical outcomes, and severely increased financial drain on an already severely overburdened healthcare budget. Conversely, there is evidence that preoperative opioid reduction may result in substantial improvements in outcome. In the era of accountable care, efforts such as the Enhanced Recovery After Surgery (ERAS) protocol have been introduced in an attempt to standardize and facilitate evidence-based perioperative interventions to optimize surgical outcomes. We propose that addressing preoperative opioid reduction as part of a targeted optimization approach for chronic pain patients seeking surgery is not only logical but mandatory given the stakes involved. Simple opioid reduction/abstinence however is not likely to occur in the absence of provision of viable and palatable alternatives to managing pain, which will require a strong focus upon reducing pain catastrophization and bolstering self-efficacy and resilience. In response to a call from our surgical community toward that end, we have developed a simple and easy-to-implement outpatient preoperative optimization program focusing on gentle opioid weaning/elimination as well as a few other high-yield areas of intervention, requiring a minimum of resources.

Keywords: Biopsychosocial; Chronic pain; Length of stay; Opioid; Opioid-induced hyperalgesia; Optimization; Outcomes; Prehabilitation; Preoperative; Weaning.

Conflict of interest statement

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

Dr. McAnally is the Medical Director of Northern Anesthesia & Pain Medicine, LLC, which is one of the two organizations that have created, copyrighted, and implemented the Valeras© Preoperative Optimization Program described herein.

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Figures

Fig. 1
Fig. 1
Acceptable preoperative optimization delay (by % of surgeons)
Fig. 2
Fig. 2
Preoperative variables of concern to surgeons

References

    1. Aasvang EK, Lunn TH, Hansen TB, Kristensen PW, Solgaard S, Kehlet H. Chronic pre-operative opioid use and acute pain after fast-track total knee arthroplasty. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2016;60:529–536. doi: 10.1111/aas.12667.
    1. Abbott AD, Tyni-Lenne R, Hedlund R. Leg pain and psychological variables predict outcome 2–3 years after lumbar fusion surgery. Eur Spine J. 2011;20:1626–1634. doi: 10.1007/s00586-011-1709-6.
    1. Adriaensen H, Vissers K, Noorduin H, Meert T. Opioid tolerance and dependence: an inevitable consequence of chronic treatment? Acta Anaesthesiol Belg. 2003;54:37–47.
    1. Anderson PA, Subach BR, Riew KD. Predictors of outcome after anterior cervical discectomy and fusion: a multivariate analysis. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2009;34:161–166. doi: 10.1097/BRS.0b013e31819286ea.
    1. Angst MS, Clark JD. Opioid-induced hyperalgesia: a qualitative systematic review. Anesthesiology. 2006;104:570–587. doi: 10.1097/00000542-200603000-00025.
    1. Angst MS, Koppert W, Pahl I, Clark DJ, Schmelz M. Short-term infusion of the mu-opioid agonist remifentanil in humans causes hyperalgesia during withdrawal. Pain. 2003;106:49–57. doi: 10.1016/S0304-3959(03)00276-8.
    1. Apkarian AV, Bushnell MC, Treede RD, Zubieta JK. Human brain mechanisms of pain perception and regulation in health and disease. Eur J Pain. 2005;9:463–484. doi: 10.1016/j.ejpain.2004.11.001.
    1. Apkarian AV, Hashmi JA, Baliki MN. Pain and the brain: specificity and plasticity of the brain in clinical chronic pain. Pain. 2011;152(3 Suppl):S49–S64. doi: 10.1016/j.pain.2010.11.010.
    1. Apkarian AV, Sosa Y, Sonty S, Levy RE, Harden RN, Parrish TB, et al. Chronic back pain is associated with decreased prefrontal and thalamic gray matter density. J Neurosci. 2004;24:10410–10415. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2541-04.2004.
    1. Armaghani SJ, Lee DS, Bible JE, Archer KR, Shau DN, Kay H, et al. Preoperative opioid use and its association with perioperative opioid demand and postoperative opioid independence in patients undergoing spine surgery. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2014;39(25):E1524–E1530. doi: 10.1097/BRS.0000000000000622.
    1. Arteta J, Cobos B, Hu Y, Jordan K, Howard K. Evaluation of how depression and anxiety mediate the relationship between pain catastrophizing and prescription opioid misuse in a chronic pain population. Pain Med. 2016;17:295–303.
    1. Attal N, Masselin-Dubois A, Martinez V, Jayr C, Albi A, Fermanian J, et al. Does cognitive functioning predict chronic pain? Results from a prospective surgical cohort. Brain. 2014;137:904–917. doi: 10.1093/brain/awt354.
    1. Baliki MN, Geha PY, Fields HL, Apkarian AV. Predicting value of pain and analgesia: nucleus accumbens response to noxious stimuli changes in the presence of chronic pain. Neuron. 2010;66(1):149–160. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2010.03.002.
    1. Baliki MN, Petre B, Torbey S, Herrmann KM, Huang L, Schnitzer TJ, et al. Corticostriatal functional connectivity predicts transition to chronic back pain. Nat Neurosci. 2012;15:1117–1119. doi: 10.1038/nn.3153.
    1. Becker WC, Sullivan LE, Tetrault JM, Desai RA, Fiellin DA. Non-medical use, abuse and dependence on prescription opioids among U.S. adults: psychiatric, medical and substance use correlates. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2008;94:38–47. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2007.09.018.
    1. Ben-Ari A, Chansky H, Rozet I. Preoperative opioid use is associated with early revision after total knee arthroplasty: a study of male patients treated in the veterans affairs system. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2017;99:1–9. doi: 10.2106/JBJS.16.00167.
    1. Blanco C, Rafful C, Wall MM, Jin CJ, Kerridge B, Schwartz RP. The latent structure and predictors of non-medical prescription drug use and prescription drug use disorders: a national study. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2013;133:473–479. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.07.011.
    1. Bushnell MC, Ceko M, Low LA. Cognitive and emotional control of pain and its disruption in chronic pain. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2013;14:502–511. doi: 10.1038/nrn3516.
    1. Carroll I, Barelka P, Wang CK, Wang BM, Gillespie MJ, McCue R. A pilot cohort study of the determinants of longitudinal opioid use after surgery. Anesth Analg. 2012;115:694–702.
    1. Chan FJ, Schwartz AM, Wong J, Chen C, Tiwari B, Kim SJ. Use of chronic methadone before total knee arthroplasty. J Arthroplast. 2017;32:2105–2107. doi: 10.1016/j.arth.2017.02.048.
    1. Chang G, Chen L, Mao J. Opioid tolerance and hyperalgesia. Med Clin North Am. 2007;91:199–211. doi: 10.1016/j.mcna.2006.10.003.
    1. Chapman CR, Davis J, Donaldson GW, Naylor J, Winchester D. Postoperative pain trajectories in chronic pain patients undergoing surgery: the effects of chronic opioid pharmacotherapy on acute pain. J Pain. 2011;12:1240–1246. doi: 10.1016/j.jpain.2011.07.005.
    1. Cheah JW, Sing DC, McLaughlin D, Feeley BT, Ma CB, Zhang AL. The perioperative effects of chronic preoperative opioid use on shoulder arthroplasty outcomes. J Shoulder Elb Surg. 2017; 10.1016/j.jse.2017.05.016.
    1. Chou R, Qaseem A, Snow V, Casey D, Cross JT, Jr, Shekelle P, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of low back pain: a joint clinical practice guideline from the American College of Physicians and the American Pain Society. Ann Intern Med. 2007;147:478–491. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-147-7-200710020-00006.
    1. Collett BJ. Opioid tolerance: the clinical perspective. Br J Anaesth. 1998;81:58–68. doi: 10.1093/bja/81.1.58.
    1. Comelon M, Raeder J, Stubhaug A, Nielsen CS, Draegni T, Lenz H, Colvin L. Gradual withdrawal of remifentanil infusion may prevent opioid-induced hyperalgesia. Br J Anaesth. 2016;116:524–530. doi: 10.1093/bja/aev547.
    1. Compton P, Athanasos P, Elashoff D. Withdrawal hyperalgesia after acute opioid physical dependence in nonaddicted humans: a preliminary study. J Pain. 2003;4:511–519. doi: 10.1016/j.jpain.2003.08.003.
    1. Cooper ZD, Sullivan MA, Vosburg SK, Manubay JM, Haney M, Foltin RW, et al. Effects of repeated oxycodone administration on its analgesic and subjective effects in normal, healthy volunteers. Behav Pharmacol. 2012;23:271–279. doi: 10.1097/FBP.0b013e3283536d6f.
    1. Coronado RA, George SZ, Devin CJ, et al. Pain sensitivity and pain catastrophizing are associated with persistent pain and disability after lumbar spine surgery. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2015;96:1763–1770. doi: 10.1016/j.apmr.2015.06.003.
    1. Darnall BD. Pain psychology and pain catastrophizing in the perioperative setting: a review of impacts, interventions and unmet needs. Hand Clin. 2016;32:33–39. doi: 10.1016/j.hcl.2015.08.005.
    1. Denison E, Åsenlöf P, Lindberg P. Self-efficacy, fear avoidance, and pain intensity as predictors of disability in subacute and chronic musculoskeletal pain patients in primary health care. Pain. 2004;111:245–252. doi: 10.1016/j.pain.2004.07.001.
    1. Desebbe O, Lanz T, Kain Z, Cannesson M. The perioperative surgical home: an innovative, patient-centred and cost-effective perioperative care model. Anaesth Crit Care Pain Med. 2016;35:59–66. doi: 10.1016/j.accpm.2015.08.001.
    1. Faour M, Anderson JT, Haas AR, Percy R, Woods ST, Ahn UM, Ahn NU. Neck pain, preoperative opioids, and functionality after cervical fusion. Orthopedics. 2017;40:25–32. doi: 10.3928/01477447-20161013-02.
    1. Farmer MA, Baliki MN, Apkarian AV. A dynamic network perspective of chronic pain. Neurosci Lett. 2012;520:197–203. doi: 10.1016/j.neulet.2012.05.001.
    1. Fechner J, Ihmsen H, Schuttler J, Jeleazcov C. The impact of intraoperative sufentanil dosing on postoperative pain, hyperalgesia and morphine consumption after cardiac surgery. Eur J Pain. 2013;17:562–570. doi: 10.1002/j.1532-2149.2012.00211.x.
    1. Federation of State Medical Boards . Model policy on the use of opioid analgesics in the treatment of chronic pain. 2013.
    1. Fishbain DA, Cutler BR, Rosomoff HL, Rosomoff RS. Comorbidity between psychiatric disorders and chronic pain. Curr Rev Pain. 1998;2:1–10. doi: 10.1007/s11916-998-0057-7.
    1. Fletcher D, Martinez V. Opioid-induced hyperalgesia in patients after surgery: a systematic review and a meta-analysis. Br J Anaesth. 2014;112:991–1004. doi: 10.1093/bja/aeu137.
    1. Flor H, Braun C, Elbert T, Birbaumer N. Extensive reorganization of primary somatosensory cortex in chronic back pain patients. Neurosci Lett. 1997;224:5–8. doi: 10.1016/S0304-3940(97)13441-3.
    1. Goldner EM, Lusted A, Roerecke M, Rehm J, Fischer B. Prevalence of Axis-1 psychiatric (with focus on depression and anxiety) disorder and symptomatology among non-medical prescription opioid users in substance use treatment: systematic review and meta-analyses. Addict Behav. 2014;39:520–531. doi: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2013.11.022.
    1. Gross R, Long D, Cox S. (197) Predicting opioid misuse with a brief screener of catastrophizing. J Pain. 2016;17(4S):S25. doi: 10.1016/j.jpain.2016.01.100.
    1. Guignard B, Bossard AE, Coste C, Sessler DI, Lebrault C, Alfonsi P, et al. Acute opioid tolerance: intraoperative remifentanil increases postoperative pain and morphine requirement. Anesthesiology. 2000;93:409–417. doi: 10.1097/00000542-200008000-00019.
    1. Gureje O, Von Korff M, Kola L, Demyttenaere K, He Y, Posada-Villa J, et al. The relation between multiple pains and mental disorders: results from the world mental health surveys. Pain. 2008;135:82–91. doi: 10.1016/j.pain.2007.05.005.
    1. Hah JM, Sharifzadeh Y, Wang BM, Gillespie MJ, Goodman SB, Mackey SC, et al. Factors associated with opioid use in a cohort of patients presenting for surgery. Pain Res Treat. 2015;2015:829696.
    1. Harris IA, Young JM, Rae H, Jalaludin BB, Solomon MJ. Factors associated with back pain after physical injury: a survey of consecutive major trauma patients. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2007;32:1561–1565. doi: 10.1097/BRS.0b013e318067dce8.
    1. Heinricher MM, Tavares I, Leith JL, Lumb BM. Descending control of nociception: specificity, recruitment and plasticity. Brain Res Rev. 2009;60:214–225. doi: 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2008.12.009.
    1. Hina N, Fletcher D, Poindessous-Jazat F, Martinez V. Hyperalgesia induced by low-dose opioid treatment before orthopaedic surgery: an observational case-control study. Eur J Anaesthesiol. 2015;32:255–261. doi: 10.1097/EJA.0000000000000197.
    1. Hoofwijk DM, Fiddelers AA, Peters ML, Stessel B, Kessels AG, Joosten EA, et al. Prevalence and predictive factors of chronic postsurgical pain and poor global recovery one year after outpatient surgery. Clin J Pain. 2015; Epub
    1. International Association for the Study of Pain . IASP sponsors global year against pain after surgery. 2017.
    1. Ip HY, Abrishami A, Peng PW, et al. Predictors of postoperative pain and analgesic consumption: a qualitative systematic review. Anesthesiology. 2009;111:657–677. doi: 10.1097/ALN.0b013e3181aae87a.
    1. Jenewein J, Moergeli H, Wittmann L, Büchi S, Kraemer B, Schnyder U. Development of chronic pain following severe accidental injury. Results of a 3-year follow-up study. J Psychosom Res. 2009;66:119–126. doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychores.2008.07.011.
    1. Katz C, El-Gabalawy R, Keyes KM, Martins SS, Sareen J. Risk factors for incident nonmedical prescription opioid use and abuse and dependence: results from a longitudinal nationally representative sample. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2013;132:107–113. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.01.010.
    1. Katz J, Weinrib A, Fashler SR, Katznelzon R, Shah BR, Ladak SS, et al. The Toronto General Hospital Transitional Pain Service: development and implementation of a multidisciplinary program to prevent chronic postsurgical pain. J Pain Res. 2015;8:695–702. doi: 10.2147/JPR.S91924.
    1. Kelly MP, Anderson PA, Sasso RC, Riew KD. Preoperative opioid strength may not affect outcomes of anterior cervical procedures: a post hoc analysis of 2 prospective, randomized trials. J Neurosurg Spine. 2015;23:484–489. doi: 10.3171/2015.1.SPINE14985.
    1. Khan RS, Ahmed K, Blakeway E, et al. Catastrophizing: a predictive factor for postoperative pain. Am J Surg. 2011;201:122–131. doi: 10.1016/j.amjsurg.2010.02.007.
    1. Kleiman V, Clarke H, Katz J. Sensitivity to pain traumatization: a higher-order factor underlying pain-related anxiety, pain catastrophizing and anxiety sensitivity among patients scheduled for major surgery. Pain Res Manag. 2011;16:169–177. doi: 10.1155/2011/932590.
    1. Lally P, van CHM J, HWW P, Wardle J. How are habits formed: modelling habit formation in the real world. Eur J Soc Psychol. 2010;40:998–1009. doi: 10.1002/ejsp.674.
    1. Latremoliere A, Woolf CJ. Central sensitization: a generator of pain hypersensitivity by central neural plasticity. J Pain. 2009;10:895–926. doi: 10.1016/j.jpain.2009.06.012.
    1. Lawrence JT, London N, Bohlman HH, Chin KR. Preoperative narcotic use as a predictor of clinical outcome: results following anterior cervical arthrodesis. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2008a;(33):2074–8.
    1. Lawrence JTR, London N, Bohlman HH, Chin KR. Preoperative narcotic use as a predictor of clinical outcome: results following anterior cervical arthrodesis. Spine. 2008;33:2074–2078. doi: 10.1097/BRS.0b013e3181809f07.
    1. Lee M, Silverman SM, Hansen H, Patel VB, Manchikanti L. A comprehensive review of opioid-induced hyperalgesia. Pain Physician. 2011;14:145–161.
    1. Malik OS, Kaye AD, Urman RD. Perioperative hyperalgesia and associated clinical factors. Curr Pain Headache Rep. 2017;21:4. doi: 10.1007/s11916-017-0602-3.
    1. Malinen S, Vartiainen N, Hlushchuk Y, Koskinen M, Ramkumar P, Forss N, et al. Aberrant temporal and spatial brain activity during rest in patients with chronic pain. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2010;107:6493–6497. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1001504107.
    1. Manchikanti L, Kaye AM, Knezevic NN, McAnally H, Slavin K, Trescot AM, et al. Responsible, safe, and effective prescription of opioids for chronic non-cancer pain: American Society of Interventional Pain Physicians (ASIPP) guidelines. Pain Physician. 2017;20(2S):S3–S92.
    1. Martins SS, Fenton MC, Keyes KM, Blanco C, Zhu H, Storr CL. Mood/anxiety disorders and their association with non-medical prescription opioid use and prescription opioid use disorder: longitudinal evidence from the National Epidemiologic Study on alcohol and related conditions. Psychol Med. 2012;42:1261–1272. doi: 10.1017/S0033291711002145.
    1. Mauermann E, Filitz J, Dolder P, Rentsch KM, Bandschapp O, Ruppen W. Does Fentanyl lead to opioid-induced hyperalgesia in healthy volunteers?: a double-blind, randomized. Crossover Trial Anesthesiology. 2016;124:453–463. doi: 10.1097/ALN.0000000000000976.
    1. McAnally HB. Opioid dependence risk factors and risk assessment. In: McAnally HB, opioid dependence: a clinical and epidemiologic approach. New York: Springer. p. 2017.
    1. Menendez ME, Ring D, Bateman BT. Preoperative opioid misuse is associated with increased morbidity and mortality after elective orthopaedic surgery. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2015;473:2402–2412. doi: 10.1007/s11999-015-4173-5.
    1. Morris BJ, Laughlin MS, Elkousy HA, Gartsman GM, Edwards TB. Preoperative opioid use and outcomes after reverse shoulder arthroplasty. J Shoulder Elb Surg. 2015;24:11–16. doi: 10.1016/j.jse.2014.05.002.
    1. Morris BJ, Sciascia AD, Jacobs CA, Edwards TB. Preoperative opioid use associated with worse outcomes after anatomic shoulder arthroplasty. J Shoulder Elb Surg. 2016;25:619–623. doi: 10.1016/j.jse.2015.09.017.
    1. Nguyen LC, Sing DC, Bozic KJ. Preoperative reduction of opioid use before total joint arthroplasty. J Arthroplast. 2016;31(9 Suppl):282–287. doi: 10.1016/j.arth.2016.01.068.
    1. Pivec R, Issa K, Naziri Q, Kapadia BH, Bonutti PM, Mont MA. Opioid use prior to total hip arthroplasty leads to worse clinical outcomes. Int Orthop. 2014;38:1159–1165. doi: 10.1007/s00264-014-2298-x.
    1. Quartana PJ, Campbell CM, Edwards RR. Pain catastrophizing: a critical review. Expert Rev Neurother. 2009;9:745–758. doi: 10.1586/ern.09.34.
    1. Raebel MA, Newcomer SR, Reifler LM, Boudreau D, Elliott TE, DeBar L, et al. Chronic use of opioid medications before and after bariatric surgery. JAMA. 2013;310:1369–1376. doi: 10.1001/jama.2013.278344.
    1. Rodriguez-Raecke R, Niemeier A, Ihle K, Ruether W, May A. Brain gray matter decrease in chronic pain is the consequence and not the cause of pain. J Neurosci. 2009;29:13746–13750. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3687-09.2009.
    1. Roeckel LA, Le Coz GM, Gavériaux-Ruff C, Simonin F. Opioid-induced hyperalgesia: cellular and molecular mechanisms. Neuroscience. 2016;338:160–182. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.06.029.
    1. Roullet S, Nouette-Gaulain K, Biais M, Bernard N, Bénard A, Revel P, et al. Preoperative opioid consumption increases morphine requirement after leg amputation. Can J Anaesth. 2009;56:908–913. doi: 10.1007/s12630-009-9185-8.
    1. Rozell JC, Courtney PM, Dattilo JR, Wu CH, Lee GC. Preoperative opiate use independently predicts narcotic consumption and complications after total joint arthroplasty. J Arthroplast. 2017; 10.1016/j.arth.2017.04.002.
    1. Rozet I, Nishio I, Robbertze R, Rotter D, Chansky H, Hernandez AV. Prolonged opioid use after knee arthroscopy in military veterans. Anesth Analg. 2014;119:454–459. doi: 10.1213/ANE.0000000000000292.
    1. Salengros J-C, Huybrechts I, Ducart A, Faraoni D, Marsala C, Barvais L, et al. Different anesthetic techniques associated with different incidences of chronic post-thoracotomy pain: low dose remifentanil plus pre-surgical epidural analgesia is preferable to high dose remifentanil with postsurgical epidural analgesia. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2010;24:608–616. doi: 10.1053/j.jvca.2009.10.006.
    1. Schmidt-Wilcke T. Variations in brain volume and regional morphology associated with chronic pain. Curr Rheumatol Rep. 2008;10:467–474. doi: 10.1007/s11926-008-0077-7.
    1. Simons LE, Elman I, Borsook D. Psychological processing in chronic pain: a neural systems approach. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2014;39:61–78. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.12.006.
    1. Sing DC, Barry JJ, Cheah JW, Vail TP, Hansen EN. Long-acting opioid use independently predicts perioperative complication in total joint arthroplasty. J Arthroplast. 2016;31(9 Suppl):170–174. doi: 10.1016/j.arth.2016.02.068.
    1. Smith SR, Bido J, Collins JE, Yang H, Katz JN, Losina E. Impact of preoperative opioid use on total knee arthroplasty outcomes. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2017;99:803–808. doi: 10.2106/JBJS.16.01200.
    1. Sullivan MJL, Bishop SR, Pivik J. The pain catastrophizing scale: development and validation. Psychol Assess. 1995;7:524–532. doi: 10.1037/1040-3590.7.4.524.
    1. Teunis T, Bot AG, Thornton ER, Ring D. Catastrophic thinking is associated with finger stiffness after distal radius fracture surgery. J Orthop Trauma. 2015;29(10):e414–e420. doi: 10.1097/BOT.0000000000000342.
    1. Theunissen M, Peters ML, Bruce J, Gramke HF, Marcus MA. Preoperative anxiety and catastrophizing: a systematic review and meta-analysis of the association with chronic postsurgical pain. Clin J Pain. 2012;28:819–841. doi: 10.1097/AJP.0b013e31824549d6.
    1. Tinazzi M, Zanette G, Volpato D, Testoni R, Bonato C, Manganotti P, Miniuissi C, Fiachi A. Neurophysiological evidence of neuroplasticity at multiple levels of the somatosensory system in patients with carpal tunnel syndrome. Brain. 1998;121:1785–1794. doi: 10.1093/brain/121.9.1785.
    1. Tracey I, Mantyh PW. The cerebral signature for pain perception and its modulation. Neuron. 2007;2:377–391. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2007.07.012.
    1. Trevino CM, deRoon-Cassini T, Brasel K. Does opiate use in traumatically injured individuals worsen pain and psychological outcomes? J Pain. 2013;14:424–430. doi: 10.1016/j.jpain.2012.12.016.
    1. Turk DC, Swanson KS, Gatchel RJ. Predicting opioid misuse by chronic pain patients: a systematic review and literature synthesis. Clin J Pain. 2008;24:497–508. doi: 10.1097/AJP.0b013e31816b1070.
    1. Tye EY, Anderson J, Faour M, Haas A, Percy R, Woods ST, Ahn UM, Ahn N. Prolonged preoperative opioid therapy in patients with degenerative lumbar stenosis in a workers’ compensation setting. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2017; 10.1097/BRS.0000000000002112.
    1. United States Department of Health and Human Services. National Pain Strategy: a comprehensive population health-level strategy for pain. 2016 Downloaded from . Accessed 6 Aug 2017.
    1. VanDenKerkhof EG, Hopman WM, Goldstein DH, Wilson RA, Towheed TE, Lam M, et al. Impact of perioperative pain intensity, pain qualities, and opioid use on chronic pain after surgery: a prospective cohort study. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2012;37:19–27. doi: 10.1097/AAP.0b013e318237516e.
    1. Veterans Health Administration and Department of Defense . VHA/DoD clinical practice guideline for the management of postoperative pain. 2002.
    1. Vetter TR, Kain ZV. Role of the perioperative surgical home in optimizing the perioperative use of opioids. Anesth Analg. 2017; 10.1213/ANE.0000000000002280. [Epub ahead of print]
    1. Villavicencio AT, Nelson EL, Kantha V, Burneikiene S. Prediction based on preoperative opioid use of clinical outcomes after transforaminal lumbar interbody fusions. J Neurosurg Spine. 2017;26:144–149. doi: 10.3171/2016.7.SPINE16284.
    1. Vissers MM, Bussmann JB, Verhaar JA, Busschbach JJ, Bierma-Zeinstra SM, Reijman M. Psychological factors affecting the outcome of total hip and knee arthroplasty: a systematic review. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 2012;41:576–588. doi: 10.1016/j.semarthrit.2011.07.003.
    1. Von Korff N, Crane P, Lane M, Miglioretti DL, Simon G, Saunders K, et al. Chronic spinal pain and physical–mental comorbidity in the United States: results from the national comorbidity survey replication. Pain. 2005;113:331–339. doi: 10.1016/j.pain.2004.11.010.
    1. Waljee JF, Cron DC, Steiger RM, Zhong L, Englesbe MJ, Brummett CM. Effect of preoperative opioid exposure on healthcare utilization and expenditures following elective abdominal surgery. Ann Surg. 2017;265:715–721. doi: 10.1097/SLA.0000000000002117.
    1. Wanigasekera V, Lee MC, Rogers R, Hu P, Tracey I. Neural correlates of an injury-free model of central sensitization induced by opioid withdrawal in humans. J Neurosci. 2011;31:2835–2842. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5412-10.2011.
    1. Weber L, Yeomans DC, Tzabazis A. Opioid-induced hyperalgesia in clinical anesthesia practice: what has remained from theoretical concepts and experimental studies? Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2017;30:458–465. doi: 10.1097/ACO.0000000000000485.
    1. Weinbroum AA. Postoperative hyperalgesia—a clinically applicable narrative review. Pharmacol Res. 2017;120:188–205. doi: 10.1016/j.phrs.2017.02.012.
    1. Williams JT, Ingram SL, Henderson G, Chavkin C, von Zastrow M, Schulz S, et al. Regulation of μ-opioid receptors: desensitization, phosphorylation, internalization, and tolerance. Pharmacol Rev. 2013;65:223–254. doi: 10.1124/pr.112.005942.
    1. Younger JW, Chu LF, D'Arcy NT, Trott KE, Jastrzab LE, Mackey SC. Prescription opioid analgesics rapidly change the human brain. Pain. 2011;152:1803–1810. doi: 10.1016/j.pain.2011.03.028.
    1. Zarling BJ, Yokhana SS, Herzog DT, Markel DC. Preoperative and postoperative opiate use by the arthroplasty patient. J Arthroplast. 2016;31:2081–2084. doi: 10.1016/j.arth.2016.03.061.
    1. Zywiel MG, Stroh DA, Lee SY, Bonutti PM, Mont MA. Chronic opioid use prior to total knee arthroplasty. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2011;93:1988–1993. doi: 10.2106/JBJS.J.01473.

Source: PubMed

Sponsors and Collaborators

Medical Conditions

Drug Interventions

3
Subscribe