Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium falciparum at the crossroads of exchange among islands in Vanuatu: implications for malaria elimination strategies

Chim W Chan, Naoko Sakihama, Shin-Ichiro Tachibana, Zulkarnain Md Idris, J Koji Lum, Kazuyuki Tanabe, Akira Kaneko, Chim W Chan, Naoko Sakihama, Shin-Ichiro Tachibana, Zulkarnain Md Idris, J Koji Lum, Kazuyuki Tanabe, Akira Kaneko

Abstract

Understanding the transmission and movement of Plasmodium parasites is crucial for malaria elimination and prevention of resurgence. Located at the limit of malaria transmission in the Pacific, Vanuatu is an ideal candidate for elimination programs due to low endemicity and the isolated nature of its island setting. We analyzed the variation in the merozoite surface protein 1 (msp1) and the circumsporozoite protein (csp) of P. falciparum and P. vivax populations to examine the patterns of gene flow and population structures among seven sites on five islands in Vanuatu. Genetic diversity was in general higher in P. vivax than P. falciparum from the same site. In P. vivax, high genetic diversity was likely maintained by greater extent of gene flow among sites and among islands. Consistent with the different patterns of gene flow, the proportion of genetic variance found among islands was substantially higher in P. falciparum (28.81-31.23%) than in P. vivax (-0.53-3.99%). Our data suggest that the current island-by-island malaria elimination strategy in Vanuatu, while adequate for P. falciparum elimination, might need to be complemented with more centrally integrated measures to control P. vivax movement across islands.

Conflict of interest statement

Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Figures

Fig 1. Map of Vanuatu showing the…
Fig 1. Map of Vanuatu showing the seven collection sites (black circles) on five islands.
The names of the six provinces in Vanuatu are capitalized and underlined, and approximate provincial boundaries are indicated by solid lines. Species-specific parasite rates (P. falciparum/P. vivax) for each site were determined by microscopy. Maps were provided by the Library at the CIA (regional) and DIVA-GIS (Vanuatu).
Fig 2. Gene flow among P .…
Fig 2. Gene flow among P. falciparum (gray) and P. vivax (black) populations from five islands in Vanuatu.
Solid lines represent inferred gene flow based on merozoite surface protein 1 (msp1) FST genetic distances, while dotted lines represent gene flow based on circumsporozoite protein (csp) distances. No gene flow was observed in P. falciparum msp1. The map of Vanuatu was provided by DIVA-GIS.

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