New Treatment Perspectives in Adolescents With Anorexia Nervosa: The Efficacy of Non-invasive Brain-Directed Treatment

Floriana Costanzo, Deny Menghini, Antonella Maritato, Maria C Castiglioni, Alberta Mereu, Cristiana Varuzza, Valeria Zanna, Stefano Vicari, Floriana Costanzo, Deny Menghini, Antonella Maritato, Maria C Castiglioni, Alberta Mereu, Cristiana Varuzza, Valeria Zanna, Stefano Vicari

Abstract

Poor treatment outcomes are available for anorexia nervosa (AN) and treatment innovations are urgently needed. Recently, non-invasive neuromodulation tools have suggested to have potential for reducing an symptomatology targeting brain alterations. The objective of the study was to verify whether left anodal/right cathodal prefrontal cortex transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), may aid in altering/resetting inter-hemispheric balance in patients with AN, re-establishing control over eating behaviors. Twenty-three adolescents with an underwent a treatment as usual (AU), including nutritional, pharmacological, and psychoeducational treatment, plus 18 sessions of tDCS (TDCS+AU = n11; mean age = 13.9, SD = 1.8 years) or a family based therapy (FBT+AU = n12, mean age = 15.1, SD = 1.5 years). Psychopathological scales and the body mass index (BMI) were assessed before and after treatment. After 6 weeks of treatment, the BMI values increased only in the tDCS group, even at 1-month follow-up. Independently of the treatment, all participants improved in several psychopathological measures, included AN psychopathology and mood and anxiety symptoms. Our results demonstrated for the first time a specific effect of the left anodal/right cathodal tDCS treatment protocol on stable weight gain and a superiority compared to an active control treatment for adolescents with AN. Results were interpreted as a possible direct/indirect effect of tDCS in into some pathophysiological mechanisms of AN, involving the mesocortical dopaminergic pathways and the promotion of food intake. This pilot study opens new perspectives in the treatment of an in adolescence, supporting the targeted and beneficial effects of a brain-based treatment.

Keywords: BMI; adolescents; anorexia; prefrontal cortex; tDCS.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
(A) Shows BMI values expressed in mean at baseline (T0) and after the end of treatment (T1). In the tDCS+AU group BMI values increased significantly more than in the FBT+AU group. (B) Shows the percentage of increase [(T1-T0/T0)*100]: in the tDCS+AU group it amounted to 13.3% (±9.4) while in the FBT+AU group it amounted to 4.2% (±5.7). *p < 0.05.
Figure 2
Figure 2
The chart shows follow-up evalution of outcome measures in the tDCS+AU group (only 9 participants). (A) Shows BMI values expressed in mean at baseline (T0), at the end of treatment (T1) and at 1 month follow-up (T2). BMI values increased even at 1-month follow-up. (B) Shows mean scaled score of EDI-III, EAT-26, MASC, and CDI at baseline (T0), at the end of treatment (T1) and at 1 month follow-up (T2). Improvement was stable until 1-month follow-up in the EAT-26, MASC, and CDI scales, but not on EDI-III. (C) Shows mean score of BUT at baseline (T0), at the end of treatment (T1) and at 1 month follow-up (T2). No improvement was shown at any evaluation time.

References

    1. Agarwal S. M., Bose A., Shivakumar V., Narayanaswamy J. C., Chhabra H., Kalmady S. V., et al. . (2015). Impact of antipsychotic medication on transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) effects in schizophrenia patients. Psychiatry Res. 235, 97–103. 10.1016/j.psychres.2015.11.042
    1. Agras W. S., Lock J., Brandt H., Bryson S. W., Dodge E., Halmi K. A., et al. . (2014). Comparison of 2 family therapies for adolescent anorexia nervosa: a randomized parallel trial. JAMA Psychiatry 71, 1279–1286. 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2014.1025
    1. Aigner M., Treasure J., Kaye W., Kasper S. (2011). World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry (WFSBP) guidelines for the pharmacological treatment of eating disorders. World J. Biol. Psychiatry 12, 400–443. 10.3109/15622975.2011.602720
    1. Alcaro A., Huber R., Panksepp J. (2007). Behavioral functions of the mesolimbic dopaminergic system: an affective neuroethological perspective. Brain Res. Rev. 56, 283–321. 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2007.07.014
    1. Antal A., Alekseichuk I., Bikson M., Brockmöller J., Brunoni A. R., Chen R., et al. (2017). Low intensity transcranial electric stimulation: safety, ethical, legal regulatory and application guidelines. Clin. Neurophysiol. 19:30212 10.1016/j.clinph.2017.06.001
    1. American Psychiatric Association (2006). Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with eating disorders (revision). Am. J. Psychiatry 163, 1–54.
    1. APA American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edn. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.
    1. Arcelus J., Mitchell A. J., Wales J., Nielsen S. (2011). Mortality rates in patients with anorexia nervosa and other eating disorders. A meta-analysis of 36 studies. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 68, 724–731. 10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.74
    1. Avena N. M., Bocarsly M. E. (2012). Dysregulation of brain reward systems in eating disorders: neurochemical information from animal models of binge eating, bulimia nervosa, and anorexia nervosa. Neuropharmacology 63, 87–96. 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.11.010
    1. Bailer U. F., Frank G. K., Henry S. E., Price J. C., Meltzer C. C., Becker C., et al. . (2007). Serotonin transporter binding after recovery from eating disorders. Psychopharmacology 195, 315–324. 10.1007/s00213-007-0896-7
    1. Bär K. J., Berger S., Schwier C., Wutzler U., Beissner F. (2013). Insular dysfunction and descending pain inhibition in anorexia nervosa. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 127, 269–278. 10.1111/j.1600-0447.2012.01896.x
    1. Bardone-Cone A. M., Harney M. B., Maldonado C. R., Lawson M. A., Robinson D. P., Smith R., et al. . (2010). Defining recovery from an eating disorder: conceptualization, validation, and examination of psychosocial functioning and psychiatric comorbidity. Behav. Res. Ther. 48, 194–202. 10.1016/j.brat.2009.11.001
    1. Bergen A. W., Yeager M., Welch R. A., Haque K., Ganjei J. K., van den Bree M. B., et al. . (2005). Association of multiple DRD2 polymorphisms with anorexia nervosa. Neuropsychopharmacology 30, 1703–1710. 10.1038/sj.npp.1300719
    1. Berridge K., Robinson T. (1998). What is the role of dopamine in reward: hedonic impact, reward learning, or incentive salience? Brain Res. 28, 309–369. 10.1016/S0165-0173(98)00019-8
    1. Bodell L. P., Keel P. K. (2010). Current treatment for anorexia nervosa: efficacy, safety, and adherence. Psychol. Res. Behav. Manag. 3, 91–108. 10.2147/PRBM.S13814
    1. Boggiano M. M., Wenger L. E., Burgess E. E., Tatum M. M., Sylvester M. D., Morgan P. R., et al. . (2017). Eating tasty foods to cope, enhance reward, socialize or conform: what other psychological characteristics describe each of these motives. J. Health Psychol. 22, 280–289. 10.1177/1359105315600240
    1. Bohon C., Stice E. (2011). Reward abnormalities among women with full and subthreshold bulimia nervosa: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Int. J. Eat. Disord. 44, 585–595. 10.1002/eat.20869
    1. Brooks S. J., O'Daly OG., Uher R., Friederich H. C., Giampietro V., Brammer M., et al. . (2011). Differential neural responses to food images in women with bulimia versus anorexia nervosa. PLoS ONE 6:22259. 10.1371/journal.pone.0022259
    1. Brunoni A. R., Amadera J., Berbel B., Volz M. S., Rizzerio B. G., Fregni F. (2011). A systematic review on reporting and assessment of adverse effects associated with transcranial direct current stimulation. Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol. 14, 1133–1145. 10.1017/S1461145710001690
    1. Bulik CM., Sullivan P. F., Fear J., Pickering A. (1997). Predictors of the development of bulimia nervosa in women with anorexia nervosa. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 185, 704–707. 10.1097/00005053-199711000-00009
    1. Casper R. C. (2006). The “drive for activity” and “restlessness” in anorexia nervosa: potential pathways. J. Affect. Disord. 92, 99–107. 10.1016/j.jad.2005.12.039
    1. Celone K. A., Thompson-Brenner H., Ross R. S., Pratt E. M., Stern C. E. (2011). An fMRI investigation of the fronto-striatal learning system in women who Exhibit eating disorder behaviors. Neuroimage 56, 1749–1757. 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.03.02
    1. Cuzzolaro M., Vetrone G., Marano G., Garfinkel P. E. (2006). The Body Uneasiness Test (BUT): development and validation of a new body image assessment scale. Eat. Weight Disord. 11, 1–13. 10.1007/BF03327738
    1. Diana M. (2011). The dopamine hypothesis of drug addiction and its potential therapeutic value. Front. Psychiatry 2:64. 10.3389/fpsyt.2011.00064
    1. Doherty J. M., Schier C. J., Vena A. A., Geoffrey A. D., Rueben A. G. (2016). Medial prefrontal cortical dopamine responses during operant self-administration of sweetened ethanol. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 40, 1662–1670. 10.1111/acer.13141
    1. Dold M., Aigner M., Klabunde M., Treasure J., Kasper S. (2015). Second-generation antipsychotic drugs in anorexia nervosa: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Psychother. Psychosom. 21, 110–116. 10.1159/000369978
    1. Ehrlich S., Geisler D., Ritschel F., King J. A., Seidel M., Boehm I., et al. . (2015). Elevated cognitive control over reward processing in recovered female patients with anorexia nervosa. J. Psychiatry Neurosci. 40, 307–315. 10.1503/jpn.140249
    1. Fairburn C. G., Harrison P. J. (2003). Eating disorders. Lancet 361, 407–416. 10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12378-1
    1. Fisher W. W., Piazza C. C., Bowman L. G., Kurtz P. F., Sherer M. R., Lachman S. R. (1994). A preliminary evaluation of empirically derived consequences for the treatment of pica. J. Appl. Behav. Anal. 27, 447–457. 10.1901/jaba.1994.27-447
    1. Fonteneau C., Redoute J., Haesebaert F., Le Bars D., Costes N., Suaud-Chagny M. F., et al. . (2018). Frontal transcranial direct current stimulation induces dopamine release in the ventral striatum in human. Cereb. Cortex 28, 2636–2646. 10.1093/cercor/bhy093
    1. Frank G. K., Shott M. E., Hagman J. O., Schiel M. A., DeGuzman M. C., Rossi B. (2017). The partial dopamine D2 receptor agonist aripiprazole is associated with weight gain in adolescent anorexia nervosa. Int. J. Eat. Disord. 50, 447–450. 10.1002/eat.22704
    1. Fregni F., Orsati F., Pedrosa W., Fecteau S., Tome F. A., Nitsche M. A., et al. . (2008). Transcranial direct current stimulation of the prefrontal cortex modulates the desire for specific foods. Appetite 51, 34–41. 10.1016/j.appet.2007.09.016
    1. Fresnoza S., Stiksrud E., Klinker F., Liebetanz D., Paulus W., Kuo M. F., et al. (2014). Dosage-dependent effect of dopamine D2 receptor activation on motor cortex plasticity in humans. J. Neurosci. 6, 10701–10709. 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0832-14.2014
    1. Friederich H. C., Herzog W. (2011). Cognitive-behavioral flexibility in anorexia nervosa. Curr. Top. Behav. Neurosci. 6, 111–123. 10.1007/7854_2010_83
    1. Galusca B., Costes N., Zito N. G., Peyron R., Bossu C., Lang F., et al. . (2008). Organic background of restrictive-type anorexia nervosa suggested by increased serotonin 1A receptor binding in right frontotemporal cortex of both lean and recovered patients. Biol. Psychiatry 64, 1009–1013. 10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.06.006
    1. Garner D. M. (2004). Eating Disorder Inventory-3. Professional Manual. Lutz, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
    1. Garner D. M., Olmsted M. P., Bohr Y., Garfinkel P. E. (1982). The eating attitudes test: psychometric features and clinical correlates. Psychol. Med. 12, 871–878. 10.1017/S0033291700049163
    1. Garner D., Desmond M., Desai J., Lockert J. (2016). The disconnect between treatment outcome data and reimbursement for the treatment of anorexia nervosa. Int J. Physiatry 2, 1–6. 10.23937/2572-4215.1510006
    1. Giannini M., Pannocchia L., Dalle Grave R., Muratori F. (2008). Adattamento Italiano dell'EDI-3. Eating Disorder Inventory-3. Firenze: Giunti O.S. Organizzazioni Speciali.
    1. Gillman M. A., Lichtigfeld F. J. (1986). The opioids, dopamine, cholecystokinin, and eating disorders. Clin. Neuropharmacol. 9, 91–97. 10.1097/00002826-198602000-00011
    1. Goldman R. L., Borckardt J. J., Frohman H. A., O'Neil P. M., Madan A., Campbell L. K., et al. . (2011). Prefrontal cortex transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) temporarily reduces food cravings and increases the self-reported ability to resist food in adults with frequent food craving. Appetite 56, 741–746. 10.1016/j.appet.2011.02.013
    1. Grace A. A. (1991). Phasic versus tonic dopamine release and the modulation of dopamine system responsivity: a hypothesis for the etiology of schizophrenia. Neuroscience 41, 1–24. 10.1016/0306-4522(91)90196-U
    1. Grunwald M., Weiss T., Assmann B., Ettrich C. (2004). Stable asymmetric interhemispheric theta power in patients with anorexia nervosa during haptic perception even after weight gain: a longitudinal study. J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol. 26, 608–620. 10.1080/13803390409609785
    1. Guarda A. (2008). Treatment of anorexia nervosa: insights and obstacles. Physiol. Behav. 94, 113–120. 10.1016/j.physbeh.2007.11.020
    1. Gustavsson A., Svensson M., Jacobi F., Allgulander C., Alonso J., Beghi E., et al. . (2011). Cost of disorders of the brain in Europe 2010. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol. 21, 718–779. 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2011.08.008
    1. Halmi K. (1982). Pragmatic information on the eating disorders. Psychiatr. Clin. North Am. 5, 371–377. 10.1016/S0193-953X(18)30873-6
    1. Hamamura T., Harada T. (2007). Unique pharmacological profile of aripiprazole as the phasic component buster. Psychopharmacology 191, 741–743. 10.1007/s00213-006-0654-2
    1. Hare T. A., Camerer C. F., Rangel A. (2009). Selfcontrol in decision-making involves modulation of the vmPFC valuation system. Science 324, 646–648. 10.1126/science.1168450
    1. Herpertz-Dahlmann B., de Zwaan M. (2011). Eating disorders: new findings for diagnosis and treatment. Nervenarzt 82, 1091–1092. 10.1007/s00115-010-3226-y
    1. Hestad K. A., Weider S., Nilsen K. B., Indredavik M. S., Sand T. (2016). Increased frontal electroencephalogram theta amplitude in patients with anorexia nervosa compared to healthy controls. Neuropsychiatr. Dis. Treat. 21, 2419–2423. 10.2147/NDT.S113586
    1. Isern R. D. (1987). Family violence and the Klüver-Bucy syndrome. South Med. J. 80, 373–377.
    1. Kamolz S., Richter M. M., Schmidtke A., Fallgatter A. J. (2008). Transcranial magnetic stimulation for comorbid depression in anorexia. Nervenarzt 79, 1071–1073. 10.1007/s00115-008-2537-8
    1. Kaye W. H., Fudge J. L., Paulus M. (2009). New insights into symptoms and neurocircuit function of anorexia nervosa. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 10, 573–584 10.1038/nrn2682
    1. Kaye W. H., Wagner A., Fudge J. L., Paulus M. (2010). Neurocircuity of eating disorders. Curr. Top. Behav. Neurosci. 6, 37–57. 10.1007/7854_2010_85
    1. Kaye W. H., Wierenga C. E., Bailer U. F., Simmons A. N., Bischoff-Grethe A. (2013). Nothing tastes as good as skinny feels: the neurobiology of anorexia nervosa. Trends Neurosci. 36, 110–120. 10.1016/j.tins.2013.01.003
    1. Khedr E. M., Elfetoh N. A., Ali A. M., Noamany M. (2014). Anodal transcranial direct current stimulation over the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex improves anorexia nervosa: a pilot study. Restor. Neurol. Neurosci. 32, 789–797. 10.3233/RNN-140392
    1. Klauss J., Penido Pinheiro L. C., Silva Merlo B. L., de Almeida Correia Santos G., Fregni F., Nitsche M. A., et al. . (2014). A randomized controlled trial of targeted prefrontal cortex modulation with tDCS in patients with alcohol dependence. Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol. 17, 1793–1803. 10.1017/S1461145714000984
    1. Kontis D., Theochari E. (2012). Dopamine in anorexia nervosa: a systematic review. Behav. Pharmacol. 23, 496–515. 10.1097/FBP.0b013e328357e115
    1. Kovacs M. (1982). C.D.I.: Children's Depression Inventory. Questionario di Autovalutazione. Adattamento Italiano a Cura di Camuffo M., Cerutti R., Lucarelli L., Mayer R. (1988). Firenze: Organizzazioni Speciali.
    1. Kovacs M. (1992). Children's Depression Inventory (CDI) Manual. New York, NY: Multi Health Systems.
    1. Kullmann S., Giel K. E., Hu X., Bischoff S. C., Teufel M., Thiel A., et al. . (2014). Impaired inhibitory control in anorexia nervosa elicited by physical activity stimuli. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci. 9, 917–923. 10.1093/scan/nst070
    1. Laghi F., Pompili S., Zanna V., Castiglioni M. C., Criscuolo M., Chianello I., et al. . (2017). How adolescents with anorexia nervosa and their parents perceive family functioning? J. Health Psychol. 22, 197–207. 10.1177/1359105315597055
    1. Le Grange D., Lock J., Agras W. S., Moye A., Bryson S. W., Jo B., et al. . (2012). Moderators and mediators of remission in family-based treatment and adolescent focused therapy for anorexia nervosa. Behav. Res. Ther. 50, 85–92. 10.1016/j.brat.2011.11.003
    1. Lee D. J., Elias G. J. B., Lozano A. M. (2018). Neuromodulation for the treatment of eating disorders and obesity. Ther. Adv. Psychopharmacol. 8, 73–92. 10.1177/2045125317743435
    1. Ljubisavljevic M., Maxood K., Bjekic J., Oommen J., Nagelkerke N. (2016). Long-term effects of repeated prefrontal cortex Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) on food craving in normal and overweight young adults. Brain Stimul. 9, 826–833. 10.1016/j.brs.2016.07.002
    1. Lock J., Le Grange D., Agras W. S., Moye A., Bryson S. W., Jo B. (2010). Randomized clinical trial comparing family-based treatment with adolescent-focused individual therapy for adolescents with anorexia nervosa. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 67, 1025–1032. 10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.128
    1. Lowe C. J., Hall P. A., Staines W. R. (2014). The effects of continuous theta burst stimulation to the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex on executive function, food cravings, and snack food consumption. Psychosom. Med. 76, 503–511. 10.1097/PSY.0000000000000090
    1. March J. S., Parker J. D., Sullivan K., Stallings P., Conners C. K. (1997). The Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children (MASC): factor structure, reliability, and validity. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 36, 554–565. 10.1097/00004583-199704000-00019
    1. McClelland J., Bozhilova N., Campbell L., Schmidt U. (2013). A Systematic review of the effects of neuromodulation on eating and body weight: evidence from human and animal studies. Eur. Eat. Disord. Rev. 21, 436–455. 10.1002/erv.2256
    1. McClelland J., Kekic M., Bozhilova N., Nestler S., Dew T., Van den Eynde F., et al. . (2016a). A randomised controlled trial of neuronavigated repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) in anorexia nervosa. PLoS ONE 11:148606. 10.1371/journal.pone.0148606
    1. McClelland J., Kekic M., Campbell I. C., Schmidt U. (2016b). Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) treatment in enduring anorexia nervosa: a case series. Eur. Eat. Disord. Rev. 24, 157–163. 10.1002/erv.2414
    1. Miller E. K., Cohen J. D. (2001). An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 24, 167–202. 10.1146/annurev.neuro.24.1.167
    1. Mohr H. M., Zimmermann J., Röder C., Lenz C., Overbeck G., Grabhorn R. (2010). Separating two components of body image in anorexia nervosa using fMRI. Psychol. Med. 40, 1519–1529. 10.1017/S0033291709991826
    1. Montenegro R. A., Okano A. H., Cunha F. A., Gurgel J. L., Fontes E. B., Farinatti P. T. (2012). Prefrontal cortex transcranial direct current stimulation associated with aerobic exercise change aspects of appetite sensation in overweight adults. Appetite 58, 333–338. 10.1016/j.appet.2011.11.008
    1. Monte-Silva K., Kuo M. F., Thirugnanasambandam N., Liebetanz D., Paulus W., Nitsche M. A. (2009). Dose-dependent inverted U-shaped effect of dopamine (D2-like) receptor activation on focal and nonfocal plasticity in humans. J. Neurosci. 29, 6124–6131. 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0728-09.2009
    1. Nasseri P., Nitsche M. A., Ekhtiari H. (2015). A framework for categorizing electrode montages in transcranial direct current stimulation. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 9:54. 10.3389/fnhum.2015.00054
    1. National Institute for Clinical Excellence (2004). National Collaborating Centre for Mental Healt, Eating Disorders. (NICE) Core Interventions in the Treatment and Management of Anorexia Nervosa, Bulimia Nervosa, and Related Eating Disorders. Leicester, UK: British Psychological Society.
    1. Nitsche M. A., Paulus W. (2000). Excitability changes induced in the human motor cortex by weak transcranial direct current stimulation. J. Physiol. 527(Pt 3), 633–639. 10.1111/j.1469-7793.2000.t01-1-00633.x
    1. Nitsche M. A., Boggio P. S., Fregni F., Pascual-Leone A. (2009). Treatment of depression with transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS): a review. Exp. Neurol. 219, 14–19. 10.1016/j.expneurol.2009.03.038
    1. Nitsche M. A., Lampe C., Antal A., Liebetanz D., Lang N., Tergau F., et al. . (2006). Dopaminergic modulation of long-lasting direct current-induced cortical excitability changes in the human motor cortex. Eur. J. Neurosci. 23, 1651–1657. 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2006.04676.x
    1. Nitsche M. A., Liebetanz D., Antal A., Lang N., Tergau F., Paulus W. (2003). Modulation of cortical excitability by weak direct current stimulation – technical, safety and functional aspects. Suppl. Clin. Neurophysiol. 56, 255–276. 10.1016/S1567-424X(09)70230-2
    1. Nitsche M. A., Muller-Dahlhaus F., Paulus W., Ziemann U. (2012). The pharmacology of neuroplasticity induced by non-invasive brain stimulation: building models for the clinical use of CNS active drugs. J. Physiol. 590, 4641–4662. 10.1113/jphysiol.2012.232975
    1. Normann C., Schmitz D., Fürmaier A., Döing C., Bach M. (2007). Long-term plasticity of visually evoked potentials in humans is altered in major depression. Biol. Psychiatry 62, 373–380. 10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.10.006
    1. Oberndorfer T., Simmons A., McCurdy D., Strigo I., Matthews S., Yang T., et al. . (2013). Greater anterior insula activation during anticipation of food images in women recovered from anorexia nervosa versus controls. Psychiatry Res. 214, 132–141. 10.1016/j.pscychresns.2013.06.010
    1. Owesson-White C. A., Roitman M. F., Sombers L. A., Belle A. M., Keithley R. B., Peele J. L., et al. . (2012). Sources contributing to the average extracellular concentration of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens. J. Neurochem. 121, 252–262. 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2012.07677.x
    1. Phillipou A., Gurvich C., Castle D. J., Abel L. A., Rossell S. L. (2015). Comprehensive neurocognitive assessment of patients with anorexia nervosa. World J. Psychiatry 22, 404–411. 10.5498/wjp.v5.i4.404
    1. Raven J. C. (1994). CPM, Coloured Progressive Matrices. Firenze: Giunti OrganizzazioniSpeciali. (Italian Adaptation, 2008).
    1. Ridding M. C., Ziemann U. (2010). Determinants of the induction of cortical plasticity by non-invasive brain stimulation in healthy subjects. J. Physiol. 588(Pt 13) 2291–2304. 10.1113/jphysiol.2010.190314
    1. Rienecke R. D. (2017). Family-based treatment of eating disorders in adolescents: current insights. Adolesc. Health Med. Ther. 1, 69–79. 10.2147/AHMT.S115775
    1. Ritschel F., Geisler D., King J. A., Bernardoni F., Seidel M., Boehm I., et al. . (2017). Neural correlates of altered feedback learning in women recovered from anorexia nervosa. Sci. Rep. 7:5421. 10.1038/s41598-017-04761-y
    1. Riva G. (2016). Neurobiology of anorexia nervosa: serotonin dysfunctions link self-starvation with body image disturbances through an impaired body memory. Hum Neurosci. 24:10 10.3389/fnhum.2016.00600
    1. Smink F. R., van Hoeken D., Hoek H. W. (2012). Epidemiology of eating disorders: incidence, prevalence and mortality rates. Curr. Psychiatry Rep. 14, 406–414. 10.1007/s11920-012-0282-y
    1. Södersten P., Bergh C., Leon M. (2016). Commentary: new insights in anorexia nervosa. Front. Neurosci. 10:483. 10.3389/fnins.2016.00483
    1. Steinglass J. E., Lempert K. M., Choo T. H., Kimeldorf M. B., Wall M., Walsh B. T., et al. . (2017). Temporal discounting across three psychiatric disorders: anorexia nervosa, obsessive compulsive disorder, and social anxiety disorder. Depress. Anxiety 34, 463–470. 10.1002/da.22586
    1. Steinglass J., Walsh B. T. (2006). Habit learning and anorexia nervosa: a cognitive neuroscience hypothesis. Int. J. Eat. Disord. 39, 267–275. 10.1002/eat.20244
    1. Steinhausen H. C. (2002). The outcome of anorexia nervosa in the 20th century. Am. J. Psychiatry 159, 1284–1293. 10.1176/appi.ajp.159.8.1284
    1. Striegel-Moore R. H., Franko D. L., Thompson D., Barton B., Schreiber G. B., Daniels S. R. (2004). Changes in weight and body image over time in women with eating disorders. Int. J. Eat. Disord. 36, 315–327. 10.1002/eat.20053
    1. Strigo I. A., Matthews S. C., Simmons A. N., Oberndorfer T., Klabunde M., Reinhardt L. E., et al. . (2013). Altered insula activation during pain anticipation in individuals recovered from anorexia nervosa: evidence of interoceptive dysregulation. Int. J. Eat. Disord. 46, 23–33. 10.1002/eat.22045
    1. Tanaka T., Takano Y., Tanaka S., Hironaka N., Kobayashi K., Hanakawa T., et al. . (2013). Transcranial direct-current stimulation increases extracellular dopamine levels in the rat striatum. Front. Syst. Neurosci. 7:6. 10.3389/fnsys.2013.00006
    1. Van den Eynde F., Guillaume S., Broadbent H., Campbell I. C., Schmidt U. (2013). Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in anorexia nervosa: a pilot study. Eur. Psychiatry 28, 98–101. 10.1016/j.eurpsy.2011.06.002
    1. Van Kuyck K., Gérard N., Van Laere K., Casteels C., Pieters G., Gabriëls L., et al. . (2009). Towards a neurocircuitry in anorexia nervosa: evidence from functional neuroimaging studies. J. Psychiatr. Res. 43, 1133–1145. 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2009.04.005
    1. Vierheilig N., Mühlberger A., Polak T., Herrmann M. J. (2016). Transcranial direct current stimulation of the prefrontal cortex increases attention to visual target stimuli. J. Neural. Transm. 123, 1195–1203. 10.1007/s00702-016-1542-5
    1. Wagner A., Aizenstein H., Venkatraman V. K., Bischoff-Grethe A., Fudge J., May J. C., et al. . (2010). Altered striatal response to reward in bulimia nervosa after recovery. Int. J. Eat. Disord. 43, 289–294. 10.1002/eat.20699
    1. Walsh B. T. (2013). The enigmatic persistence of anorexia nervosa. Am. J. Psychiatry 170, 477–484. 10.1176/appi.ajp.2012.12081074
    1. Wietschorke K., Lippold J., Jacob C., Polak T., Herrmann M. J. (2016). Transcranial direct current stimulation of the prefrontal cortex reduces cue-reactivity in alcohol-dependent patients. J. Neural Transm. 123, 1173–1178. 10.1007/s00702-016-1541-6
    1. Ziadi Trives M., Bonete Llácer J. M., García Escudero M. A., Martínez Pastor C. J. (2013). Effect of the addition of aripiprazole on hyperprolactinemia associated with risperidone long-acting injection. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 33, 538–541. 10.1097/JCP.0b013e3182970431

Source: PubMed

Sponsors and Collaborators

Medical Conditions

Drug Interventions

3
Subscribe