Rhythmic Physical Activity Intervention: Exploring Feasibility and Effectiveness in Improving Motor and Executive Function Skills in Children

Spyridoula Vazou, Brenna Klesel, Kimberley D Lakes, Ann Smiley, Spyridoula Vazou, Brenna Klesel, Kimberley D Lakes, Ann Smiley

Abstract

Introduction: Increasing literature has emerged investigating the importance of considering the qualitative characteristics of physical activity (PA) interventions and sports as well as considering the role of motor competence in the exercise-cognition interplay. The purpose of this pilot study was to examine the feasibility and effectiveness of a rhythmic PA intervention compared to a standard physical education program, on motor and hot and cool executive function (EF) skills.

Methods: Children ages 6-11 were enrolled in one of the two programs: a rhythmic program (n = 22) and a physical education program (n = 17), both meeting for 30 min, twice per week, for 7 weeks. The rhythmic program emphasized moving to the beat of music and moving in various rhythmic patterns with whole body movements, clapping, and drumsticks. The children also created their own rhythmic patterns and socially engaged with other children by working in pairs and sharing their routines with the group. The physical education group engaged in ball skills, locomotor patterns, team sports, and moving through stations in small groups, with no emphasis on rhythm. Pretest and posttest measurements included measurement of balance (Movement ABC-2), cool and hot EF (Flanker, SWAN), and social factors, whereas throughout the implementation period data on affective valence, enjoyment, cognitive engagement, perceived exertion, and PA levels were collected at every lesson in both groups.

Results: The rhythmic program used in this study was feasible, scalable, affordable, and able to be implemented with minimal preparatory time. Children in both groups (rhythmic and physical education) engaged in a similar level of PA and had similar positive experiences from the programs. Both groups improved in balance and cool EF, and there were significant correlations in the change scores between balance and cool EF, as well as between cool EF with hot EF and socio-emotional factors.

Discussion: This study contributes to the literature by exploring the potential value of rhythmic programs as a vehicle in helping children develop motor and EF skills while deriving joy and positive social interactions from the program.

Keywords: chronic exercise; cognition; enjoyment; executive processing; physical education; social; youth.

Copyright © 2020 Vazou, Klesel, Lakes and Smiley.

Figures

FIGURE 1
FIGURE 1
Study flowchart showing retention of participants in the rhythmic (A) and the PE (B) group.

References

    1. Agans J. P., Davis J. L., Vazou S., Jarus T. (2019). Self-determination through circus arts: exploring youth development in a novel activity context. J. Youth Dev. 14 110–129. 10.5195/jyd.2019.662
    1. ASCD, and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC] (2014). Whole School, Whole Community, Whole Child: A Collaborative Approach to Learning and Health. Available online at: (accessed April 24, 2020).
    1. Best J. R. (2010). Effects of physical activity on children’s executive function: contributions of experimental research on aerobic exercise. Dev. Rev. 30 331–351. 10.1016/j.dr.2010.08.001
    1. Bhide A., Power A., Goswami U. (2013). A rhythmic musical intervention for poor readers: a comparison of efficacy with a letter-based intervention. Mind Brain Educ. 7 113–123. 10.1111/mbe.12016
    1. Bowen D. J., Kreuter M., Spring B., Cofta-Woerpel L., Linnan L., Weiner D., et al. (2009). How we design feasibility studies. Am. J. Prev. Med. 36 452–457.
    1. Brand R., Ekkekakis P. (2018). Affective-reflective theory of physical inactivity and exercise: foundations and preliminary evidence. German J. Exerc. Sport Res. 48 48–58. 10.1007/s12662-017-0477-9
    1. Centers for Disease Control, and Prevention [CDC] (2010). The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
    1. Chang Y.-K., Tsai Y.-J., Chen T.-T., Hung T.-M. (2013). The impacts of coordinative exercise on executive function in kindergarten children: an ERP study. Exp. Brain Res. 225 187–196. 10.1007/s00221-012-3360-9
    1. Cox A. E., Smith A. L., Williams L. (2008). Change in physical education motivation and physical activity behavior during middle school. J. Adolescent Health 43 506–513. 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2008.04.020
    1. Crova C., Struzzolino I., Marchetti R., Masci I., Vannozzi G., Forte R., et al. (2014). Benefits of cognitively challenging physical activity in overweight children. J. Sports Sci. 32 201–211. 10.1080/02640414.2013.828849
    1. Deci E. L., Ryan R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychol. Inq. 11 227–268. 10.1207/s15327965pli1104_01
    1. Deforche B., De Bourdeaudhuij I. (2015). Attentional distraction during exercise in overweight and normal-weight boys. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 12 3077–3090. 10.3390/ijerph120303077
    1. Degé F., Schwarzer G. (2011). The effect of a music program on phonological awareness in preschoolers. Front. Psychol. 2:124. 10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00124
    1. Diamond A. (2000). Close interrelation of motor development and cognitive development and of the cerebellum and prefrontal cortex. Child Dev 71 44–56. 10.1111/1467-8624.00117
    1. Diamond A. (2014). Want to optimize executive functions and academic outcomes? Simple, just nourish the human spirit. Minnesota Symp. Child Psychol. 37 203–230. 10.1002/9781118732373.ch7
    1. Diamond A. (2015). Effects of physical exercise on executive functions: going beyond simply moving to moving with thought. Ann. Sports Med. Res. 2:1011.
    1. Diamond A., Barnett W. S., Thomas J., Munro S. (2007). Preschool program improves cognitive control. Science 318 1387–1388. 10.1126/science.1151148
    1. Diamond A., Lee K. (2011). Interventions shown to aid executive function development in children 4 to 12 years old. Science 333 959–964. 10.1126/science.1204529
    1. Diamond A., Ling D. (2015). Conclusions about interventions, programs, and approaches for improving executive functions that appear justified and those that, despite much hype, do not. Dev. Cogn. Neurosci. 18 34–48. 10.1016/j.dcn.2015.11.005
    1. Donnelly J. E., Hillman C. H., Castelli D., Etnier J. L., Lee S., Tomporowski P., et al. (2016). Physical activity, fitness, cognitive function, and academic achievement in children: a systematic review. Med. Sci. Sport. Exerc. 48:1197. 10.1249/mss.0000000000000901
    1. Hardy C. J., Rejeski W. J. (1989). Not what, but how one feels: the measurement of affect during exercise. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 11 304–317. 10.1123/jsep.11.3.304
    1. Harwood C. G., Keegan R. J., Smith J. M., Raine A. S. (2015). A systematic review of the intrapersonal correlates of motivational climate perceptions in sport and physical activity. Psychol. Sport Exerc. 18 9–25. 10.1016/j.psychsport.2014.11.005
    1. Hein V., Jõesaar H. (2015). How perceived autonomy support from adults and peer motivational climate are related with self-determined motivation among young athletes. Int. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 13 193–204. 10.1080/1612197x.2014.947304
    1. Henderson S. E., Sugden D. A. (2007). Ecological Intervention for Children with Movement Difficulties: Movement ABC-2. London: Pearson.
    1. Hulley A., Bentley N., Clough C., Fishlock A., Morrell F., O’Brien J., et al. (2008). Active and passive commuting to school: influences on affect in primary school children. Res. Q. Exerc. Sport 79 525–534. 10.1080/02701367.2008.10599519
    1. Institute of Medicine [IOM] (2013). Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
    1. Isen A. M., Reeve J. (2005). The influence of positive affect on intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: facilitating enjoyment of play, responsible work behavior, and self-control. Motiv. Emotion 29 295–323. 10.1007/s11031-006-9019-8
    1. Ishihara T., Sugasawa S., Matsuda Y., Mizuno M. (2017). Improved executive functions in 6–12-year-old children following cognitively engaging tennis lessons. J. Sports Sci. 35 2014–2020. 10.1080/02640414.2016.1250939
    1. Jaschke A. C., Honing H., Scherder E. J. (2018). Longitudinal analysis of music education on executive functions in primary school children. Front. Neurosci. 12:103. 10.3389/fnins.2018.00103
    1. Kaufman A. S., Kaufman N. L. (2004). Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
    1. Lakes K. D. (2012). The response to challenge scale (RCS): the development and construct validity of an observer-rated measure of children’s self-regulation. Int. J. Educ. Psychol. Assess. 10 83–96.
    1. Lakes K. D. (2013). Measuring self-regulation in a physically active context: psychometric analyses of scores derived from an observer-rated measure of self-regulation. Mental Health Phys. Act. 6 189–196. 10.1016/j.mhpa.2013.09.003
    1. Lakes K. D., Bryars T., Sirisinahal S., Salim N., Arastoo S., Emmerson N., et al. (2013). The healthy for life Taekwondo pilot study: a preliminary evaluation of effects on executive function and BMI, feasibility, and acceptability. Ment. Health Phys. Act. 6 181–188. 10.1016/j.mhpa.2013.07.002
    1. Lakes K. D., Hoyt W. T. (2004). Promoting self-regulation through school-based martial arts training. Appl. Dev. Psychol. 25 283–302. 10.1016/j.appdev.2004.04.002
    1. Lakes K. D., Neville R., Vazou S., Schuck S., Stavropoulos K., Krishnan K., et al. (2019). Beyond broadway: analysis of qualitative characteristics of and individual responses to creatively able, a music and movement intervention for children with Autism. Int. J. Environ. Public Health 16:1377. 10.3390/ijerph16081377
    1. Lakes K. D., Swanson J. M., Riggs M. (2012). The reliability and validity of the English and Spanish Strengths and Weaknesses of ADHD and Normal Behavior (SWAN) rating scales: continuum measures of hyperactivity and inattention. J. Atten. Disord. 16 510–516. 10.1177/1087054711413550
    1. Linardakis M., Trouli K., Chlapana E. (2013). Effects of a rhythm development intervention on the phonological awareness in early childhood. Int. Proc. Econ. Dev. Res. 78:10.
    1. McAuley E., Duncan T., Tammen V. V. (1989). Psychometric properties of the intrinsic motivation inventory in a competitive sport setting: a confirmatory factor analysis. Res. Q. Exerc. Sport 60 48–58. 10.1080/02701367.1989.10607413
    1. Mura G., Vellante M., Egidio Nardi A., Machado S., Giovanni Carta M. (2015). Effects of school-based physical activity interventions on cognition and academic achievement: a systematic review. CNS Neurol. Disord. Drug Targets 14 1194–1208. 10.2174/1871527315666151111121536
    1. Myer G. D., Jayanthi N., DiFiori J. P., Faigenbaum A. D., Kiefer A. W., Logerstedt D., et al. (2016). Sports specialization, part II: alternative solutions to early sport specialization in youth athletes. Sports Health Mult. Appr. 8 65–73. 10.1177/1941738115614811
    1. Nasuti G., Rhodes R. E. (2013). Affective judgment and physical activity in youth: review and meta-analyses. Ann. Behav. Med. 45 357–376. 10.1007/s12160-012-9462-6
    1. Nelson S. D. (2016). The Effects of an Integrated Rhythmic and Literacy Intervention on the Development of Phonological Awareness and Rhythm Skills of Preschoolers. Doctoral Dissertation, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, Ann Arbor, MI.
    1. Neurobehavioral Systems (2012). Presentation (Version 15). Berkeley, CA: Neurobehavioral Systems.
    1. Ntoumanis N., Vazou S. (2005). Peer motivational climate in youth sport: measurement development and validation. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 27 432–455. 10.1123/jsep.27.4.432
    1. Ntoumanis N., Vazou S., Duda J. L. (2007). “Towards an understanding of peer motivational climate in youth sport,” in Social Psychol. Sport, eds Jowett S., Lavalee D. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; ).
    1. Patel A. D. (2003). Language, music, syntax and the brain. Nat. Neurosci. 6 674–681. 10.1038/nn1082
    1. Pesce C. (2012). Shifting the focus from quantitative to qualitative exercise characteristics in exercise and cognition research. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 34 766–786. 10.1123/jsep.34.6.766
    1. Pesce C., Ben-Soussan T. D. (2016). “‘Cogito ergo sum’ or ‘ambulo ergo sum’? New perspectives in developmental exercise and cognition research,” in Exercise - Cognition Interaction: Neuroscience Perspectives, ed. McMorris T. (London: Elsevier; ), 251–282. 10.1016/b978-0-12-800778-5.00012-8
    1. Pesce C., Croce R., Ben-Soussan T. D., Vazou S., McCullick B., Tomporowski P. D., et al. (2019). Variability of practice as an interface between motor and cognitive development. Int. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 17 133–152. 10.1080/1612197x.2016.1223421
    1. Pesce C., Crova C., Marchetti M., Struzzolino I., Masci I., Vannozzi G., et al. (2013a). Searching for cognitively optimal challenge point in physical activity for children with typical and atypical motor development. Ment. Health Phys. Act. 6 172–180. 10.1016/j.mhpa.2013.07.001
    1. Pesce C., Faigenbaum A., Crova C., Marchetti R., Bellucci M. (2013b). Benefits of multi-sports physical education in the elementary school context. Health Educ. J. 72 326–336. 10.1177/0017896912444176
    1. Pesce C., Lakes K., Stodden D., Marchetti R. (2020). Fostering Self-control development with a designed intervention in physical education: a two-year class-randomized trial. Child Dev. [Epub ahead of print].
    1. Plowman S. A., Meredith M. D. (2013). Fitnessgram/Activitygram Reference Guide. Dallas, TX: The Cooper Institute.
    1. Robertson R. J., Goss F. L., Andreacci J. L., DubÉ J. J., Rutkowski J. J., Snee B. M., et al. (2005). Validation of the children’s OMNI RPE scale for stepping exercise. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 37 290–298. 10.1249/01.mss.0000149888.39928.9f
    1. Schmidt M., Benzing V., Kamer M. (2016). Classroom-based physical activity breaks and children’s attention: cognitive engagement works! Front. Psychol. 7:1474. 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01474
    1. Schmidt M., Jäger K., Egger F., Roebers C. M., Conzelmann A. (2015). Cognitively engaging chronic physical activity, but not aerobic exercise, affects executive functions in primary school children: a group-randomized controlled trial. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 37 575–591. 10.1123/jsep.2015-0069
    1. SHAPE America (2014). National Standards & Grade-Level Outcomes for K-12 Physical Education. Reston, VA: Human Kinetics.
    1. Shaywitz S. E. (1998). Dyslexia. New England J. Med. 338 307–312.
    1. Sparks C., Dimmock J., Whipp P., Lonsdale C., Jackson B. (2015). “Getting connected”: high school physical education teacher behaviors that facilitate students’ relatedness support perceptions. Sport, Exerc. Perform. Psychol. 4 219–236. 10.1037/spy0000039
    1. Standage M., Duda J. L., Ntoumanis N. (2005). A test of self-determination theory in school physical education. Br. J. Educ. Psychol. 75 411–433. 10.1348/000709904X22359
    1. Swanson J. M., Schuck S., Porter M. M., Carlson C., Hartman C. A., Sergeant J. A., et al. (2012). Categorical and dimensional definitions and evaluations of symptoms of ADHD: history of the SNAP and the SWAN rating scales. Int. J. Educ. Psychol. Assess. 10 51–68.
    1. Sylvester B. D., Curran T., Standage M., Sabiston C. M., Beauchamp M. R. (2018). Predicting exercise motivation and exercise behavior: a moderated mediation model testing the interaction between perceived exercise variety and basic psychological needs satisfaction. Psychol. Sport Exerc. 36 50–56. 10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.01.004
    1. Tierney A. T., Kraus N. (2013). The ability to tap to a beat relates to cognitive, linguistic, and perceptual skills. Brain Lang. 124 225–231. 10.1016/j.bandl.2012.12.014
    1. Tomporowski P. D., Pesce C. (2019). Exercise, sports, and performance arts benefit cognition via a common process. Psychol. Bull. 145 929–951. 10.1037/bul0000200
    1. van der Fels I. M., Smith J., de Bruijn A. G., Bosker R. J., Königs M., Oosterlaan J., et al. (2019). Relations between gross motor skills and executive functions, controlling for the role of information processing and lapses of attention in 8 - 10 year old children. PLoS One 14:e0224219. 10.1371/journal.pone.0224219
    1. Van der Fels I. M. J., Te Wierike S. C. M., Hartman E., Elferink-Gemser M. T., Smith J., Visscher C. (2015). The relationship between motor skills and cognitive skills in 4–16 year old typically developing children: a systematic review. J. Sci. Med. Sport 18 697–703. 10.1016/j.jsams.2014.09.007
    1. Vazou S., Mischo A., Ladwig M. A., Ekkekakis P., Welk G. (2019a). Psychologically informed physical fitness practice in schools: a field experiment. Psychol. Sport Exerc. 40 143–151. 10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.10.008
    1. Vazou S., Pesce C., Lakes K., Smiley-Oyen A. (2019b). More than one road leads to Rome: a narrative review and meta-analysis of physical activity intervention effects on cognition in youth. Int. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 17 153–178. 10.1080/1612197x.2016.1223423
    1. Weikart P. S. (2006). Teaching Movement & Dance: A Sequential Approach to Rhythmic Movement. Ypsilanti, MI: High Scope Foundation.
    1. Wentzel K. R., Ramani G. B. (eds) (2016). Handbook of Social Influences in School Contexts: Social-Emotional, Motivation, and Cognitive Outcomes. Abingdon: Routledge.
    1. Williams G. C., Deci E. L. (1996). Internalization of biopsychosocial values by medical students: a test of self-determination theory. J. Personal. Social Psychol. 70 767–779. 10.1037/0022-3514.70.4.767
    1. Wilson M. (2002). Six views of embodied cognition. Psychol. Bull. Rev. 9 625–636. 10.3758/bf03196322
    1. Wilson P. M., Bengoechea E. G. (2010). The relatedness to others in physical activity scale: evidence for structural and criterion validity. J. Appl. Biobehav. Res. 15 61–87. 10.1111/j.1751-9861.2010.00052.x

Source: PubMed

Sponsors and Collaborators

Medical Conditions

Drug Interventions

3
Subscribe