Potential of Complementary and Alternative Medicine in Preventive Management of Novel H1N1 Flu (Swine Flu) Pandemic: Thwarting Potential Disasters in the Bud

Rajesh Arora, R Chawla, Rohit Marwah, P Arora, R K Sharma, Vinod Kaushik, R Goel, A Kaur, M Silambarasan, R P Tripathi, J R Bhardwaj, Rajesh Arora, R Chawla, Rohit Marwah, P Arora, R K Sharma, Vinod Kaushik, R Goel, A Kaur, M Silambarasan, R P Tripathi, J R Bhardwaj

Abstract

The emergence of novel H1N1 has posed a situation that warrants urgent global attention. Though antiviral drugs are available in mainstream medicine for treating symptoms of swine flu, currently there is no preventive medicine available. Even when available, they would be in short supply and ineffective in a pandemic situation, for treating the masses worldwide. Besides the development of drug resistance, emergence of mutant strains of the virus, emergence of a more virulent strain, prohibitive costs of available drugs, time lag between vaccine developments, and mass casualties would pose difficult problems. In view of this, complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) offers a plethora of interesting preventive possibilities in patients. Herbs exhibit a diverse array of biological activities and can be effectively harnessed for managing pandemic flu. Potentially active herbs can serve as effective anti influenza agents. The role of CAM for managing novel H1N1 flu and the mode of action of these botanicals is presented here in an evidence-based approach that can be followed to establish their potential use in the management of influenza pandemics. The complementary and alternative medicine approach deliberated in the paper should also be useful in treating the patients with serious influenza in non pandemic situations.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
The H1N1 Virus.
Figure 2
Figure 2
Symptoms of Swine flu due to novel H1N1 viral attack.
Figure 3
Figure 3
Confirmed cases of H1N1 at global level & number of deaths (April-Sep 2009).
Figure 4
Figure 4
Confirmed cases of H1N1 in India & number of deaths (April-Sep 2009).
Figure 5
Figure 5
Need for an alternative therapy to manage novel H1N1 viral infection.
Figure 6
Figure 6
The mechanism of action of some isolated compounds from herbs and their role in prevention and treatment of novel H1N1 flu.
Figure 7
Figure 7
Medicinal plants present a plethora of options for the prevention and treatment of novel H1N1 in view of their multifarious modes of action.

References

    1. Alleva LM, Charles C, Clark IA. Using complementary and alternative medicines to target the host response during severe influenza. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2010;7(4):501–510.
    1. Serum cross-reactive antibody response to a novel influenza A (H1N1) virus after vaccination with seasonal influenza vaccine. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 2009;58(19):521–524.
    1. Hayden F. Developing new antiviral agents for influenza treatment: what does the future hold? Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2009;48(1):S3–S13.
    1. Chawla R, Sharma RK, Madaan D, et al. Mitigation approaches to combat flu pandemic. Journal of Global Infectious Diseases. 2009;1(2):117–130.
    1. Lynch JP, III, Walsh EE. Influenza: evolving strategies in treatment and prevention. Seminars in Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 2007;28(2):144–158.
    1. Bright RA, Medina M-J, Xu X, et al. Incidence of adamantane resistance among influenza A (H3N2) viruses isolated worldwide from 1994 to 2005: a cause for concern. Lancet. 2005;366(9492):1175–1181.
    1. Swine influenza: frequently asked questions. Weekly Epidemiological Record. World Health Organization. 2009;84(18):149–160.
    1. Patwardhan B, Warude D, Pushpangadan P, Bhatt N. Ayurveda and traditional Chinese medicine: a comparative overview. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2005;2(4):465–473.
    1. Kaphle K, Wu L-S, Yang N-YJ, Lin J-H. Herbal medicine research in Taiwan. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2006;3(1):149–155.
    1. Kiyohara H, Nonaka K, Sekiya M, et al. Polysaccharide-containing macromolecules in a kampo (traditional Japanese herbal) medicine, hochuekkito: dual active ingredients for modulation of immune functions on intestinal Peyer's patches and epithelial cells. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. In press.
    1. Azaizeh H, Saad B, Cooper E, Said O. Traditional arabic and islamic medicine, a re-emerging health aid. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2010;7(4):419–424.
    1. Firenzuoli F, Gori L. Herbal medicine today: clinical and research issues. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2007;4(1):37–40.
    1. Chang I-M. Initiative for developing evidence-based standardization of traditional Chinese medical therapy in the western pacific region of the World Health Organization. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2004;1(3):337–341.
    1. Mishra L, Lakshmi C. Scientific Basis for Ayurvedic Therapies. CIRC Press; 2004.
    1. Wang X, Jia W, Zhao A, Wang X. Anti-influenza agents from plants and traditional Chinese medicine. Phytotherapy Research. 2006;20(5):335–341.
    1. Warrier PK. Indian 9 Medicinal Plants. Vol. 4. Orient Longman; 1995.
    1. Curreli F, Friedman-Kien AE, Flore O. Glycyrrhizic acid alters Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus latency, triggering p53-mediated apoptosis in transformed B lymphocytes. Journal of Clinical Investigation. 2005;115(3):642–652.
    1. Nose M, Terawaki K, Oguri K, Ogihara Y, Yoshimatsu K, Shimomura K. Activation of macrophages by crude polysaccharide fractions obtained from shoots of Glycyrrhiza glabra and hairy roots of Glycyrrhiza uralensis in vitro . Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin. 1998;21(10):1110–1112.
    1. Wagner H, Jurcic K. Immunological studies of Revitonil®, a phytopharmaceutical containing Echinacea purpurea and Glycyrrhiza glabra root extract. Phytomedicine. 2002;9(5):390–397.
    1. Fiore C, Eisenhut M, Krausse R, et al. Antiviral effects of Glycyrrhiza species. Phytotherapy Research. 2008;22(2):141–148.
    1. Pompei R, Flore O, Marccialis MA. Glycyrrhizic acid inhibits virus growth and inactivates virus particles. Nature. 1979;281(5733):689–690.
    1. Warrier PK. Indian 9 Medicinal Plants. Vol. 5. Orient Longman; 1995.
    1. Kuhn M, Winston D. Winston & Kuhn's Herbal Therapy & Supplements: A Scientific and Traditional Approach. Philadelphia, Pa, USA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2007.
    1. NIIR Board. Compendium of Medicinal Plants. New Delhi, India: National Institute of Industrial Research; 2004.
    1. Prakash P, Gupta N. Therapeutic uses of Ocimum sanctum Linn (O. sanctum) with a note on eugenol and its pharmacological actions. Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology. 1972;10(1):23–25.
    1. Sethi J, Sood S, Seth S, Talwar A. Evaluation of hypoglycemic and antioxidant effect of Ocimum sanctum . Indian Journal of Clinical Biochemistry. 2004;19(2):152–155.
    1. Uma Devi P, Ganasoundari A. Modulation of glutathione and antioxidant enzymes by Ocimum sanctum and its role in protection against radiation injury. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology. 1999;37(3):262–268.
    1. Arora R, Gupta D, Chawla R, et al. Radioprotection by plant products: present status and future prospects. Phytotherapy Research. 2005;19(1):1–22.
    1. Chopra RN, Nayer SL, Chopra IC. Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants. New Delhi, India: Council of Scientific and Industrial Research; 1956.
    1. Phadke SA, Kulkarni SD. Screening of in vitro antibacterial activity of Terminalia chebula, Eclapta alba and Ocimum sanctum . Indian Journal of Medical Sciences. 1989;43(5):113–117.
    1. Rai MK. In vitro evaluation of medicinal plant extracts against Pestalotiopsis mangiferae . Hindustan Antibiotics Bulletin. 1996;38(1–4):53–56.
    1. Kumar R, Singh DP, Chaturvedi VK, Pathak RC. A note on anti viral property of neem (Melia azadirachata) and O. sanctum (Ocimum sanctum) against Newcastle disease virus. Journal of Comparative Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases. 1997;18:p. 192.
    1. Gupta S, Sharma P, Saini BM. Immunomodulatory potential of Ocimum tenuiflorum extracts in bovine peripheral blood mononuclear cells in vitro . Journal of Immunology and Immunopathology. 2007;9
    1. Phadke SA, Kulkarni SD. Screening of in vitro antibacterial activity of Terminalia chebula, Eclapta alba and Ocimum sanctum . Indian Journal of Medical Sciences. 1989;43(5):113–117.
    1. Tsai Y, Cole LL, Davis LE, Lockwood SJ, Simmons V, Wild GC. Antiviral properties of garlic: in vitro effects on influenza B, herpes simplex and Coxsackie viruses. Planta Medica. 1985;(5):460–461.
    1. Guo N, Lu D, Woods GL, et al. Demonstration of the anti-viral activity of garlic extract against human cytomegalovirus in vitro . Chinese Medical Journal. 1993;106(2):93–96.
    1. Subhose V, Srinivas P, Narayana A. Basic principles of pharmaceutical science in Ayurvěda. Bulletin of the Indian Institute of History of Medicine. 2005;35(2):83–92.
    1. Miller LG. Herbal medicinals: selected clinical considerations focusing on known or potential drug-herb interactions. Archives of Internal Medicine. 1998;158(20):2200–2211.
    1. Wirotesangthong M, Nagai T, Yamada H, Amnuoypol S, Mungmee C. Effects of Clinacanthus siamensis leaf extract on influenza virus infection. Microbiology and Immunology. 2009;53(2):66–74.
    1. Mochida K. Anti-influenza virus activity of Myrica rubra leaf ethanol extract evaluated using Madino-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells. Bioscience, Biotechnology and Biochemistry. 2008;72(11):3018–3020.
    1. Ooi LSM, Tian L, Su M, et al. Isolation, characterization, molecular cloning and modeling of a new lipid transfer protein with antiviral and antiproliferative activities from Narcissus tazetta . Peptides. 2008;29(12):2101–2109.
    1. Yingsakmongkon S, Miyamoto D, Sriwilaijaroen N, et al. In vitro inhibition of human influenza A virus infection by fruit-juice concentrate of Japanese plum (Prunus mume SIEB. et ZUCC) Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin. 2008;31(3):511–515.
    1. Ehrhardt C, Hrincius ER, Korte V, et al. A polyphenol rich plant extract, CYSTUS052, exerts anti influenza virus activity in cell culture without toxic side effects or the tendency to induce viral resistance. Antiviral Research. 2007;76(1):38–47.
    1. Ooi LSM, Sun SSM, Ooi VEC. Purification and characterization of a new antiviral protein from the leaves of Pandanus amaryllifolius (Pandanaceae) International Journal of Biochemistry and Cell Biology. 2004;36(8):1440–1446.
    1. Ryu YB, Curtis-Long MJ, Kim JH, et al. Pterocarpans and flavanones from Sophora flavescens displaying potent neuraminidase inhibition. Bioorganic and Medicinal Chemistry Letters. 2008;18(23):6046–6049.
    1. Valcheva-Kuzmanova SV, Belcheva A. Current knowledge of Aronia melanocarpa as a medicinal plant. Folia Medica. 2006;48(2):11–17.
    1. Li Y, Jiang R, Ooi LSM, But PPH, Ooi VEC. Antiviral triterpenoids from the medicinal plant Schefflera heptaphylla . Phytotherapy Research. 2007;21(5):466–470.
    1. Rajbhandari M, Wegner U, Schöpke T, Lindequist U, Mentel R. Inhibitory effect of Bergenia ligulata on influenza virus A. Pharmazie. 2003;58(4):268–271.
    1. Serkedjieva J, Manolova N. Plant polyphenolic complex inhibits the reproduction of influenza and herpes simplex viruses. Phytotherapy Research. 1999;10(5):441–443.
    1. Kappagoda C, Isaacs D, Mellis C, Peat J, De Silva L, O’Connell A. Critical influenza virus infection. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health. 2000;36(4):318–321.
    1. de la Osa. Comisión Técnica de Fitomed (CTF) [2003], José Gripe , November 2008.
    1. Skwarek T. Effects of Herbal Preparations on the propagation of influenza viruses. Acta Poloniae Pharmaceulica. 1979;36(5):1–7.
    1. Ríos JL, Waterman PG. A review of the pharmacology and toxicology of Astragalus . Phytotherapy Research. 1998;11(6):411–418.
    1. Lis-Balchin M, Hart S, Simpson E. Buchu (Agathosma betulina and A. crenulata, Rutaceae) essential oils: their pharmacological action on guinea-pig ileum and antimicrobial activity on microorganisms. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology. 2001;53(4):579–582.
    1. Lumaret R, Ouazzani N. Ancient wild olives in Mediterranean forests. Nature. 2001;413(6857):p. 700.
    1. Schepetkin IA, Faulkner CL, Nelson-Overton LK, Wiley JA, Quinn MT. Macrophage immunomodulatory activity of polysaccharides isolated from Juniperus scopolorum . International Immunopharmacology. 2005;5(13-14):1783–1799.
    1. Mathew S, Abraham TE. In vitro antioxidant activity and scavenging effects of Cinnamomum verum leaf extract assayed by different methodologies. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2006;44(2):198–206.
    1. Nagai T, Moriguchi R, Suzuki Y, Tomimori T, Yamada H. Mode of action of the anti-influenza virus activity of plant flavonoid, 5,7,4’-trihydroxy-8-methoxyflavone, from the roots of Scutellaria baicalensis . Antiviral Research. 1995;26(1):11–25.
    1. Duke W. Medicine: Cocos nucifera Folk Medicine. 2009.
    1. Kabara JJ. The Pharmacological Effect of Lipids. Champaign, Ill, USA: American Oil Chemist’s Society; 1978.
    1. Projan SJ, Skrobot SB, Schlievert PM, Vandenesch F, Novick RP. Glycerol monolaurate inhibits the production of beta-lactamase, toxic shock toxin1, and other staphylococcal exoproteins By interfering with signal transduction. Journal of Bacteriology. 1996;176:4204–4209.
    1. Hornung B, Amtmann E, Sauer G. Lauric acid inhibits the maturation of vesicular stomatitis virus. Journal of General Virology. 1994;75(2):353–361.
    1. Kim SO, Kundu JK, Shin YK, et al. Gingerol inhibits COX-2 expression by blocking the activation of p38 MAP kinase and NF-kappaB in phorbol ester-stimulated mouse skin. American Society for Nutrition Journal of Nutrition. 2006;136:1150–1155.
    1. Wang X, Jia W, Zhao A, Wang X. Anti-influenza agents from plants and traditional Chinese medicine. Phytotherapy Research. 2006;20(5):335–341.
    1. Villacres-Eriksson M, Behboudi S, Morgan AJ, Trinchieri G, Morein B. Immunomodulation by Quillaja saponaria adjuvant formulations: in vivo stimulation of interleukin 12 and its effects on the antibody response. Cytokine. 1997;9(2):73–82.
    1. Yale SH, Liu K. Echinacea purpurea therapy for the treatment of the common cold: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Archives of Internal Medicine. 2004;164(11):1237–1241.
    1. Benny KHT, Bay BH, Zhu YZ. Novel Compounds from Natural Products in the New Millennium: Potential and Challenges. Singapore: World Scientific; 2004.
    1. D’Aoust M-A, Lavoie P-O, Couture MM-J, et al. Influenza virus-like particles produced by transient expression in Nicotiana benthamiana induce a protective immune response against a lethal viral challenge in mice. Plant Biotechnology Journal. 2008;6(9):930–940.
    1. Villaseñor-García MM, Lozoya X, Osuna-Torres L, Viveros-Paredes JM, Sandoval-Ramírez L, Puebla-Pérez AM. Effect of Ginkgo biloba extract EGb 761 on the nonspecific and humoral immune responses in a hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activation model. International Immunopharmacology. 2004;4(9):1217–1222.
    1. Naser B, Bodinet C, Tegtmeier M, Lindequist U. Thuja occidentalis (Arbor vitae): a review of its pharmaceutical, pharmacological and clinical properties. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2005;2(1):69–78.
    1. Guenther G, Krishna R, Badhwar W. Controlled clinical study of Trachyspermum ammi . Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research. 1953;12A(2):288–289.
    1. Sànchez-Lamar A, Fiore M, Cundari E, Ricordy R, Cozzi R, De Salvia R. Phyllanthus orbicularis aqueous extract: cytotoxic, genotoxic, and antimutagenic effects in the CHO cell line. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology. 1999;161(3):231–239.
    1. Fortunatov MN. Experimental use of phytoncides for therapeutic and prophylactic purpose. Voprosy Pediatrii i Okhrany Materinstva. 1952;20(2):55–58.
    1. David W, Steven M. Adaptogens: Herbs for Strength, Stamina, and Stress Relief. Healing Arts Press; 2007.
    1. Singh SS, Pandey SC, Srivastava S, Gupta VS, Patro B, Ghosh AC. Chemistry and medicinal properties of Tinospora cordifolia (Guduchi) Indian Journal of Pharmacology. 2003;35(2):83–91.
    1. Kapil A, Sharma S. Immunopotentiating compounds from Tinospora cordifolia . Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 1997;58(2):89–95.
    1. Sohni YR, Bhatt RM. Activity of a crude extract formulation in experimental hepatic amoebiasis and in immunomodulation studies. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 1996;54(2-3):119–124.
    1. Peirce A. The American Pharmaceutical Association Practical Guide to Natural Medicines. New York, NY, USA: William Morrow; 1999.
    1. Murray MT. The Healing Power of Herbs: The Enlightened Person's Guide to the Wonders of Medicinal Plants. Vol. 25. Rocklin, Calif, USA: Prima; 1995.
    1. Herrmann EC, Jr., Kucera LS. Antiviral substances in plants of the mint family (labiatae). 3. Peppermint (Mentha piperita) and other mint plants. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. 1967;124(3):874–878.
    1. Herrmann EC, Jr., Kucera LS. Antiviral substances in plants of the mint family (labiatae). 3. Peppermint (Mentha piperita) and other mint plants. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. 1967;124(3):874–878.
    1. Valsaraj R, Pushpangadan P, Smitt UW, Adsersen A, Nyman U. Antimicrobial screening of selected medicinal plants from India. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 1997;58(2):75–83.
    1. Ganguli S. Neem: a therapeutic for all seasons. Current Science. 1994;82(11):p. 1304.
    1. Parida MM, Upadhyay C, Pandya G, Jana AM. Inhibitory potential of neem (Azadirachta indica Juss) leaves on dengue virus type-2 replication. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2002;79(2):273–278.
    1. Badam L, Joshi SP, Bedekar SS. ’In vitro’ antiviral activity of neem (Azadirachta indica. A. Juss) leaf extract against group B Coxsackieviruses. Journal of Communicable Diseases. 1999;31(2):79–90.
    1. Arora R, Singh S, Sharma RK. Neem leaves: Indian herbal medicine. In: Watson RR, Preedy VR, editors. Botanical Medicine in Clinical Practice. Oxon, UK: CAB International; 2008. pp. 85–98.
    1. Chatterjee A. Isolation of allo-imperatorin and β-sitosterol from the fruits of Aegle marmelos Correa . Journal of the Indian Chemical Society. 1957;34(3):228–230.
    1. Guenther G, Krishna R, Badhwar W. Controlled clinical study of Trachyspermum ammi . Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research. 1953;12A(2):288–289.
    1. Chopra RN, Nayar SL, Chopra IC. Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants (Including the Supplement) New Delhi, India: Council of Scientific and Industrial Research; 1986.
    1. Bown D. Encyclopaedia of Herbs and Their Uses. London, UK: Dorling Kindersley; 1995.
    1. Melchior J, Palm S, Wikman G. Controlled clinical study of standardized Andrographis paniculata extract in common cold: a pilot trial. Phytomedicine. 1996-1997;34:314–318.
    1. Naik GH, Priyadarsini KI, Naik DB, Gangabhagirathi R, Mohan H. Studies on the aqueous extract of Terminalia chebula as a potent antioxidant and a probable radioprotector. Phytomedicine. 2004;11(6):530–538.
    1. Cheng H-Y, Lin T-C, Yu K-H, Yang C-M, Lin C-C. Antioxidant and free radical scavenging activities of Terminalia chebula . Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin. 2003;26(9):1331–1335.
    1. Schwarte A. Phytochemische und pharmakologische Untersuchungen der Wurzeln von Sophora flavescens, unter besonderer Berücksichtigung ihrer Wirkung auf die Leukotrien- und Prostaglandinbiosynthese. 2002.
    1. Zhu Y-P. Chinese Materia Medica: Chemistry, Pharmacology and Applications. Boca Raton, Fla, USA: CRC Press; 1998.
    1. Schwarte A. Phytochemische und pharmakologische Untersuchungen der Wurzeln von Sophora flavescens, unter besonderer Berücksichtigung ihrer Wirkung auf die Leukotrien- und Prostaglandinbiosynthese. 2002.
    1. Sasaki K, Minowa N, Kuzuhara H, Nishiyama S, Omoto S. Synthesis and hepatoprotective effects of soyasapogenol B derivatives. Bioorganic and Medicinal Chemistry Letters. 1997;7(1):85–88.
    1. Zheng P, Niu F-L, Liu W-Z, Shi Y, Lu L-G. Anti-inflammatory mechanism of oxymatrine in dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis of rats. World Journal of Gastroenterology. 2005;11(31):4912–4915.
    1. Chiou WF, Chen CC, Wei BL. 8-prenylkaempferol suppresses influenza A virus-induced RANTES production in A549 cells via blocking PI3K-mediated transcriptional activation of NF-{kappa}B and IRF3. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. In press.
    1. Kinghorn AD, Balandrin MF, Pelletier SW. Alkaloids: Chemical and Biological Perspectives. Vol. 3. New York, NY, USA: John Wiley & Sons; 1984.
    1. Rajkumar M, Chandra RH, Asres K, Veeresham C. Toddalia asiatica (Linn.) Lam.- a comprehensive review. Plant Review. 2008;12(4):386–397.
    1. Saxena VK, Sharma RN. Antimicrobial activity of the essential oil of Toddalia asiatica . Fitoterapia. 1999;70(1):64–66.
    1. Lowry PP, II, Plunkett GM, Wen J. Generic relationships in Araliaceae: looking into the crystal ball. South African Journal of Botany. 2004;70(3):382–392.
    1. Plunkett GM, Wen J, Lowry PP., II Infrafamilial classifications and characters in Araliaceae: insights from the phylogenetic analysis of nuclear (ITS) and plastid (trnL-trnF) sequence data. Plant Systematics and Evolution. 2004;245(1-2):1–39.
    1. Plunkett GM, Lowry PP, II, Frodin DG, Wen J. Phylogeny and geography of Schefflera: pervasive polyphyly in the largest genus of Araliaceae. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden. 2005;92(2):202–224.
    1. Li Y, Jiang R, Ooi LSM, But PPH, Ooi VEC. Antiviral triterpenoids from the medicinal plant Schefflera heptaphylla . Phytotherapy Research. 2007;21(5):466–470.
    1. Li Y, But PPH, Ooi VEC. Antiviral activity and mode of action of caffeoylquinic acids from Schefflera heptaphylla (L.) Frodin. Antiviral Research. 2005;68(1):1–9.
    1. Song JM, Park KD, Lee KH, et al. Biological evaluation of anti-influenza viral activity of semi-synthetic catechin derivatives. Antiviral Research. 2007;76(2):178–185.
    1. Jennifer KS, Tamara D, Stefan K. North American (Panax quinquefolius) and Asian Ginseng (Panax ginseng) preparations for prevention of the common cold in healthy adults: a systematic review. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. In press.
    1. Xiang Q, Lowry PP. Panax quinquefolius . In: Wu ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY, editors. Flora of China, 13. St. Louis, Mo, USA: Science Press, Beijing, China; Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 2007. p. 491.
    1. Zhu S, Zou K, Fushimi H, Cai S, Komatsu K. Comparative study on triterpene saponins of ginseng drugs. Planta Medica. 2004;70(7):666–677.
    1. Scaglione F, Cattaneo G, Alessandria M, Cogo R. Efficacy and safety of the standardized ginseng extract G 115 for potentiating vaccination against common cold and/or influenza syndrome. Drugs under Experimental and Clinical Research. 1996;22(2):65–72.
    1. Paul B. Healing Power of Echinacea and Goldenseal and Other Immune System Herbs (The Healing Power) Prima Lifestyles; 1997.
    1. Dorn M. Milderung grippaler Effekte durch ein pflanzliches Immunstimulans. Natur und Ganzheitsmedizin. 1989;2:314–319.
    1. Brinkeborn R, Shah D, Geissbuhler S. Echinaforce in the treatment of acute colds. Schweizerische Zeitschrift fur Ganzheits Medizin. 1998;10:26–29.
    1. Wagner H. Echinacea species as potential immunostimulatory drugs. Economic and Medicinal Plant Research. 1991;5:253–321.
    1. Wagner H, Proksch A, Riess-Maurer I. Immunostimulating polysaccharides (heteroglycans) of higher plants. Arzneimittel-Forschung. 1985;35(7):1069–1075.
    1. Stimpel M, Proksch A, Wagner H, Lohmann-Matthes M-L. Macrophage activation and induction of macrophage cytotoxicity by purified polysaccharide fractions from the plant Echinacea purpurea . Infection and Immunity. 1984;46(3):845–849.
    1. Luettig B, Steinmuller C, Gifford GE, Wagner H, Lohmann-Matthes M-L. Macrophage activation by the polysaccharide arabinogalactan isolated from plant cell cultures of Echinacea purpurea . Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1989;81(9):669–675.

Source: PubMed

Sponsors and Collaborators

Medical Conditions

Drug Interventions

3
Subscribe