Propionibacterium acnes: an underestimated pathogen in implant-associated infections

María Eugenia Portillo, Stéphane Corvec, Olivier Borens, Andrej Trampuz, María Eugenia Portillo, Stéphane Corvec, Olivier Borens, Andrej Trampuz

Abstract

The role of Propionibacterium acnes in acne and in a wide range of inflammatory diseases is well established. However, P. acnes is also responsible for infections involving implants. Prolonged aerobic and anaerobic agar cultures for 14 days and broth cultures increase the detection rate. In this paper, we review the pathogenic role of P. acnes in implant-associated infections such as prosthetic joints, cardiac devices, breast implants, intraocular lenses, neurosurgical devices, and spine implants. The management of severe infections caused by P. acnes involves a combination of antimicrobial and surgical treatment (often removal of the device). Intravenous penicillin G and ceftriaxone are the first choice for serious infections, with vancomycin and daptomycin as alternatives, and amoxicillin, rifampicin, clindamycin, tetracycline, and levofloxacin for oral treatment. Sonication of explanted prosthetic material improves the diagnosis of implant-associated infections. Molecular methods may further increase the sensitivity of P. acnes detection. Coating of implants with antimicrobial substances could avoid or limit colonization of the surface and thereby reduce the risk of biofilm formation during severe infections. Our understanding of the role of P. acnes in human diseases will likely continue to increase as new associations and pathogenic mechanisms are discovered.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Diversity of implant-associated infections caused by P. acnes.
Figure 2
Figure 2
Scheme of a normal pilosebaceus unit of human skin. The hair, sebum, and keratinocytes that fill the narrow follicle may produce a plug. The mixture of oil and cells desquamate allows P. acnes to grow in the plugged follicles, producing chemicals and enzymes that attract host immune cells causing inflammation. Source: National Institutes of Health (NIH), Department of Health and Human Services.
Figure 3
Figure 3
High correlation between the degree of capsular contracture and sonication culture of 89 removed breast implants without clinical signs of infection (P for trend <0.001). Reproduced with permission from Rieger et al. [71].

References

    1. Grice EA, Segre JA. The skin microbiome. Nature Reviews Microbiology. 2011;9(4):244–253.
    1. Funke G, Von Graevenitz A, Clarridge JE, III, Bernard KA. Clinical microbiology of Coryneform bacteria. Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 1997;10(1):125–159.
    1. Brüggemann H. Insights in the pathogenic potential of Propionibacterium acnes from its complete genome. Seminars in Cutaneous Medicine and Surgery. 2005;24(2):67–72.
    1. Cohen RJ, Shannon BA, McNeal JE, Shannon T, Garrett KL. Propionibacterium acnes associated with inflammation in radical prostatectomy specimens: a possible link to cancer evolution? Journal of Urology. 2005;173(6):1969–1974.
    1. Colina M, Lo Monaco A, Khodeir M, Trotta F. Propionibacterium acnes and SAPHO syndrome: a case report and literature review. Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology. 2007;25(3):457–460.
    1. Yamada T, Eishi Y, Ikeda S, et al. In situ localization of Propionibacterium acnes DNA in lymph nodes from sarcoidosis patients by signal amplification with catalysed reporter deposition. Journal of Pathology. 2002;198(4):541–547.
    1. Ichikawa H, Kataoka M, Hiramatsu J, et al. Quantitative analysis of propionibacterial DNA in bronchoalveolar lavage cells from patients with sarcoidosis. Sarcoidosis Vasculitis and Diffuse Lung Diseases. 2008;25(1):15–20.
    1. Stirling A, Worthington T, Rafiq M, Lambert PA, Elliott TSJ. Association between sciatica and Propionibacterium acnes . Lancet. 2001;357(9273):2024–2025.
    1. Del Pozo JL, Tran NV, Petty PM, et al. Pilot study of association of bacteria on breast implants with capsular contracture. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 2009;47(5):1333–1337.
    1. Rieger UM, Pierer G, Lüscher NJ, Trampuz A. Sonication of removed breast implants for improved detection of subclinical infection. Aesthetic Plastic Surgery. 2009;33(3):404–408.
    1. Conen A, Walti LN, Merlo A, Fluckiger U, Battegay M, Trampuz A. Characteristics and treatment outcome of cerebrospinal fluid shunt-associated infections in adults: a retrospective analysis over an 11-year period. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2008;47(1):73–82.
    1. Delahaye F, Fol S, Célard M, et al. Propionibacterium acnes infective endocarditis. Study of 11 cases and review of literature. Archives des Maladies du Coeur et des Vaisseaux. 2005;98(12):1212–1218.
    1. Deramo VA, Ting TD. Treatment of Propionibacterium acnes endophthalmitis. Current Opinion in Ophthalmology. 2001;12(3):225–229.
    1. Haidar R, Najjar M, Boghossian AD, Tabbarah Z. Propionibacterium acnes causing delayed postoperative spine infection: review. Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2010;42(6-7):405–411.
    1. Piper KE, Jacobson MJ, Cofield RH, et al. Microbiologic diagnosis of prosthetic shoulder infection by use of implant sonication. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 2009;47(6):1878–1884.
    1. Delgado S, Suárez A, Mayo B. Identification, typing and characterisation of Propionibacterium strains from healthy mucosa of the human stomach. International Journal of Food Microbiology. 2011;149(1):65–72.
    1. Gribbon EM, Shoesmith JG, Cunliffe WJ, Holland KT. The microaerophily and photosensitivity of Propionibacterium acnes . Journal of Applied Bacteriology. 1994;77(5):583–590.
    1. Cove JH, Holland KT, Cunliffe WJ. Effects of oxygen concentration on biomass production, maximum specific growth rate and extracellular enzyme production by three species of cutaneous propionibacteria grown in continuous culture. Journal of General Microbiology. 1983;129(11):3327–3334.
    1. Csukás Z, Banizs B, Rozgonyi F. Studies on the cytotoxic effects of Propionibacterium acnes strains isolated from cornea. Microbial Pathogenesis. 2004;36(3):171–174.
    1. Viraraghavan R, Jantausch B, Campos J. Late-onset central nervous system shunt infections with Propionibacterium acnes: diagnosis and management. Clinical Pediatrics. 2004;43(4):393–397.
    1. Schäfer P, Fink B, Sandow D, Margull A, Berger I, Frommelt L. Prolonged bacterial culture to identify late periprosthetic joint infection: a promising strategy. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2008;47(11):1403–1409.
    1. Butler-Wu SM, Burns EM, Pottinger PS, et al. Optimization of periprosthetic culture for diagnosis of Propionibacterium acnes prosthetic joint infection. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 2011;49(7):2490–2495.
    1. Corvec S, Portillo ME, Pasticci BM, Borens O, Trampuz A. Epidemiology and new developments in the diagnosis of prosthetic joint infection. The International Journal of Artificial Organs. 2012;35(10):923–934.
    1. Portillo ME, Salvadó M, Trampuz A, et al. Sonication versus vortexing of implants for diagnosis of prosthetic joint infection. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 2013;51(2):591–594.
    1. Guío L, Sarriá C, de Las Cuevas C, Gamallo C, Duarte J. Chronic prosthetic valve endocarditis due to Propionibacterium acnes: an unexpected cause of prosthetic valve dysfunction. Revista Espanola de Cardiologia. 2009;62(2):167–177.
    1. Perry A, Lambert P. Propionibacterium acnes: infection beyond the skin. Expert Review of Anti-Infective Therapy. 2011;9(12):1149–1156.
    1. Johnson JL, Cummins CS. Cell wall composition and deoxyribonucleic acid similarities among the anaerobic coryneforms, classical propionibacteria, and strains of Arachnia propionica. Journal of Bacteriology. 1972;109(3):1047–1066.
    1. McDowell A, Perry AL, Lambert PA, Patrick S. A new phylogenetic group of Propionibacterium acnes . Journal of Medical Microbiology. 2008;57(2):218–224.
    1. McDowell A, Valanne S, Ramage G, et al. Propionibacterium acnes types I and II represent phylogenetically distinct groups. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 2005;43(1):326–334.
    1. Nagy E, Urban E, Becker S, et al. MALDI-TOF MS fingerprinting facilitates rapid discrimination of phylotypes I, II and III of Propionibacterium acnes . Anaerobe. 2013;20:20–26.
    1. Valanne S, McDowell A, Ramage G, et al. CAMP factor homologues in Propionibacterium acnes: a new protein family differentially expressed by types I and II. Microbiology. 2005;151(5):1369–1379.
    1. Brzuszkiewicz E, Weiner J, Wollherr A, et al. Comparative genomics and transcriptomics of Propionibacterium acnes . PLoS ONE. 2011;6(6)e21581
    1. Hunyadkürti J, Feltóti Z, Horváth B, et al. Complete genome sequence of Propionibacterium acnes type IB strain 6609. Journal of Bacteriology. 2011;193(17):4561–4562.
    1. Sampedro MF, Piper KE, McDowell A, et al. Species of Propionibacterium and Propionibacterium acnes phylotypes associated with orthopedic implants. Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease. 2009;64(2):138–145.
    1. Cobo J, Del Pozo JL. Prosthetic joint infection: diagnosis and management. Expert Review of Anti-Infective Therapy. 2011;9(9):787–802.
    1. Trampuz A, Piper KE, Jacobson MJ, et al. Sonication of removed hip and knee prostheses for diagnosis of infection. The New England Journal of Medicine. 2007;357(7):654–663.
    1. Zimmerli W, Trampuz A, Ochsner PE. Current concepts: prosthetic-joint infections. The New England Journal of Medicine. 2004;351(16):1645–1654.
    1. Del Pozo JL, Patel R. Infection associated with prosthetic joints. The New England Journal of Medicine. 2009;361(8):787–794.
    1. Sampedro MF, Huddleston PM, Piper KE, et al. A biofilm approach to detect bacteria on removed spinal implants. Spine. 2010;35(12):1218–1224.
    1. Bori G, Soriano A, García S, et al. Low sensitivity of histology to predict the presence of microorganisms in suspected aseptic loosening of a joint prosthesis. Modern Pathology. 2006;19(6):874–877.
    1. Dodson CC, Craig EV, Cordasco FA, et al. Propionibacterium acnes infection after shoulder arthroplasty: a diagnostic challenge. Journal of Shoulder and Elbow Surgery. 2010;19(2):303–307.
    1. Piper KE, Fernandez-Sampedro M, Steckelberg KE, et al. C-reactive protein, erythrocyte sedimentation rate and orthopedic implant infection. PLoS ONE. 2010;5(2)e9358
    1. Trampuz A, Hanssen AD, Osmon DR, Mandrekar J, Steckelberg JM, Patel R. Synovial fluid leukocyte count and differential for the diagnosis of prosthetic knee infection. American Journal of Medicine. 2004;117(8):556–562.
    1. Trampuz A, Steinrücken J, Clauss M, et al. New methods for the diagnosis of implant-associated infections. Revue Medicale Suisse. 2010;6(243):731–734.
    1. Borens O, Nussbaumer F, Baalbaki R, Trampuz A. Update on implant related infections in orthopaedic surgery. Diagnosis and treatment. Revue Medicale Suisse. 2009;5(230):2563–2568.
    1. Portillo ME, Salvadó M, Sorli L, et al. Multiplex PCR of sonication fluid accurately differentiates between prosthetic joint infection and aseptic failure. Journal of Infection. 2012;65(6):541–548.
    1. Achermann Y, Vogt M, Leimig M, Wüst J, Trampuz A. Improved diagnosis of periprosthetic joint infection by multiplex PCR of sonication fluid from removed implants. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 2010;48(4):1208–1214.
    1. Nelson CL, McLaren AC, McLaren SG, Johnson JW, Smeltzer MS. Is aseptic loosening truly aseptic? Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research. 2005;(437):25–30.
    1. Sierra JM, García S, Martínez-Pastor JC, et al. Relationship between the degree of osteolysis and cultures obtained by sonication of the prostheses in patients with aseptic loosening of a hip or knee arthroplasty. Archives of Orthopaedic and Trauma Surgery. 2011;131(10):1357–1361.
    1. Holinka J, Bauer L, Hirschl AM, Graninger W, Windhager R, Presterl E. Sonication cultures of explanted components as an add-on test to routinely conducted microbiological diagnostics improve pathogen detection. Journal of Orthopaedic Research. 2011;29(4):617–622.
    1. Portillo ME, Salvadó M, Alier A, et al. Prosthesis failure within 2 years of implantation is highly predictive of infection. Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research . 2013;471(11):3672–3678.
    1. Vanagt WY, Daenen WJ, Delhaas T. Propionibacterium acnes endocarditis on an annuloplasty ring in an adolescent boy. Heart. 2004;90(9):p. e56.
    1. Mohsen AH, Price A, Ridgway E, West JN, Green S, McKendrick MW. Propionibacterium acnes endocarditis in a native valve comlicated by intraventricular abscess: a case report and review. Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2001;33(5):379–380.
    1. Gunthard H, Hany A, Turina M, Wust J. Propionibacterium acnes as a cause of aggressive aortic valve endocarditis and importance of tissue grinding: case report and review. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 1994;32(12):3043–3045.
    1. Lalani T, Person AK, Hedayati SS, et al. Propionibacterium endocarditis: a case series from the International Collaboration on Endocarditis Merged Database and Prospective Cohort Study. Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2007;39(10):840–848.
    1. Durack DT, Lukes AS, Bright DK. New criteria for diagnosis of infective endocarditis: utilization of specific echocardiographic findings. American Journal of Medicine. 1994;96(3):200–209.
    1. Durupt S, Boibieux A, Ballet-Mechain M, et al. Propionibacterium acnes endocarditis: two cases and a review of the literature. Presse Medicale. 1998;27(36):1839–1841.
    1. Huynh TT, Walling AD, Miller MA, Leung TK, Leclerc Y, Dragtakis L. Propionibacterium acnes endocarditis. Canadian Journal of Cardiology. 1995;11(9):785–787.
    1. Cook RR, Perkins LL. The prevalence of breast implants among women in the United States. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology. 1996;210:418–425.
    1. Herdman RC, Fahey TJ. Silicone breast implants and cancer. Cancer Investigation. 2001;19(8):821–832.
    1. Washer LL, Gutowski K. Breast implant infections. Infectious disease clinics of North America. 2012;26(1):111–125.
    1. Pittet B, Montandon D, Pittet D. Infection in breast implants. Lancet Infectious Diseases. 2005;5(2):94–106.
    1. Darouiche RO. Treatment of infections associated with surgical implants. The New England Journal of Medicine. 2004;350(14):1422–1429.
    1. Young VL, Watson ME. Breast implant research: where we have been, where we are, where we need to go. Clinics in Plastic Surgery. 2001;28(3):451–483.
    1. Ersek RA. Rate and incidence of capsular contracture: a comparison of smooth and textured silicone double-lumen breast prostheses. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. 1991;87(5):879–884.
    1. Gabriel SE, Woods JE, O’Fallon WM, Beard CM, Kurland LT, Melton LJ., III Complications leading to surgery after breast implantation. The New England Journal of Medicine. 1997;336(10):677–682.
    1. Spear SL, Baker JL, Jr., Caffee HH. Classification of capsular contracture after prosthetic breast reconstruction. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. 1995;96(5):1119–1124.
    1. Embrey M, Adams EE, Cunningham B, Peters W, Young VL, Carlo GL. A review of the literature on the etiology of capsular contracture and a pilot study to determine the outcome of capsular contracture interventions. Aesthetic Plastic Surgery. 1999;23(3):197–206.
    1. Netscher DT, Deva AK. Subclinical infection as a possible cause of significant breast capsules. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. 2004;113(7):2229–2230.
    1. Pajkos A, Deva AK, Vickery K, Cope C, Chang L, Cossart YE. Detection of subclinical infection in significant breast implant capsules. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. 2003;111(5):1605–1611.
    1. Rieger UM, Mesina J, Kalbermatten DF, et al. Bacterial biofilms and capsular contracture in patients with breast implants. British Journal of Surgery. 2013;100:768–774.
    1. Ahn CY, Ko CY, Wagar EA, Wong RS, Shaw WW. Microbial evaluation: 139 Implants removed from symptomatic patients. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. 1996;98(7):1225–1229.
    1. Kresloff MS, Castellarin AA, Zarbin MA. Endophthalmitis. Survey of Ophthalmology. 1998;43(3):193–224.
    1. Casaroli-Marano RP, Adán A. Eye infections associated with ocular implants. Enfermedades Infecciosas y Microbiologia Clinica. 2008;26(9):581–588.
    1. Lohmann CP, Linde H-J, Reischl U. Improved detection of microorganisms by polymerase chain reaction in delayed endophthalmitis after cataract surgery. Ophthalmology. 2000;107(6):1047–1052. discussion 1051–1042.
    1. Adán A, Casaroli-Marano RP, Gris O, et al. Pathological findings in the lens capsules and intraocular lens in chronic pseudophakic endophthalmitis: an electron microscopy study. Eye. 2008;22(1):113–119.
    1. Rahman MK, Holz ER. Alcaligenes xylosoxidans and Propionibacterium acnes postoperative endophthalmitis in a pseudophakic eye. American Journal of Ophthalmology. 2000;129(6):813–815.
    1. Association H. October 2013,
    1. Baird C, O’Connor D, Pittman T. Late shunt infections. Pediatric Neurosurgery. 1999;31(5):269–273.
    1. Ratilal B, Costa J, Sampaio C. Antibiotic prophylaxis for surgical introduction of intracranial ventricular shunts: a systematic review. Journal of Neurosurgery: Pediatrics. 2008;1(1):48–56.
    1. Isaacman DJ, Poirier MP, Hegenbarth M, Lillis KA, Scarfone R. Ventriculoperitoneal shunt management. Pediatric Emergency Care. 2003;19(2):119–125.
    1. Schiff SJ, Oakes WJ. Delayed cerebrospinal-fluid shunt infection in children. Pediatric Neuroscience. 1989;15(3):131–135.
    1. Vinchon M, Lemaitre M-P, Vallée L, Dhellemmes P. Late shunt infection: incidence, pathogenesis, and therapeutic implications. Neuropediatrics. 2002;33(4):169–173.
    1. Renier D, Lacombe J, Pierre-Kahn A. Factors causing acute shunt infection. Computer analysis of 1174 operations. Journal of Neurosurgery. 1984;61(6):1072–1078.
    1. Barnes NP, Jones SJ, Hayward RD, Harkness WJ, Thompson D. Ventriculoperitoneal shunt block: what are the best predictive clinical indicators? Archives of Disease in Childhood. 2002;87(3):198–201.
    1. Gower DJ, Lewis JC, Kelly DL., Jr. Sterile shunt malfunction. A scanning electron microscopic perspective. Journal of Neurosurgery. 1984;61(6):1079–1084.
    1. Pittman T, Wiliams D, Rathore M, Knutsen AP, Mueller KR. The role of ethylene oxide allergy in sterile shunt malfunctions. British Journal of Neurosurgery. 1994;8(1):41–45.
    1. Tuli S, Drake J, Lawless J, Wigg M, Lamberti-Pasculli M. Risk factors for repeated cerebrospinal shunt failures in pediatric patients with hydrocephalus. Journal of Neurosurgery. 2000;92(1):31–38.
    1. Fulkerson DH, Boaz JC. Cerebrospinal fluid eosinophilia in children with ventricular shunts. Journal of Neurosurgery: Pediatrics. 2008;1(4):288–295.
    1. Westergren H, Westergren V, Forsum U. Propionebacterium acnes in cultures from ventriculo-peritoneal shunts: infection or contamination? Acta Neurochirurgica. 1997;139(1):33–36.
    1. Fulkerson DH, Vachhrajani S, Bohnstedt BN, et al. Analysis of the risk of shunt failure or infection related to cerebrospinal fluid cell count, protein level, and glucose levels in low-birth-weight premature infants with posthemorrhagic hydrocephalus. Journal of Neurosurgery: Pediatrics. 2011;7(2):147–151.
    1. Bezerra S, Frigeri TM, Severo CM, Santana JCB, Graeff-Teixeira C. Cerebrospinal fluid eosinophilia associated with intraventricular shunts. Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery. 2011;113(5):345–349.
    1. Schreffler RT, Schreffler AJ, Wittler RR. Treatment of cerebrospinal fluid shunt infections: a decision analysis. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal. 2002;21(7):632–636.
    1. McGirt MJ, Wellons JC, III, Nimjee SM, Bulsara KR, Fuchs HE, George TM. Comparison of total versus partial revision of initial ventriculoperitoneal shunt failures. Pediatric Neurosurgery. 2003;38(1):34–40.
    1. Parker SL, Anderson WN, Lilienfeld S, Megerian JT, Mcgirt MJ. Cerebrospinal shunt infection in patients receiving antibiotic-impregnated versus standard shunts: a review. Journal of Neurosurgery: Pediatrics. 2011;8(3):259–265.
    1. Lozier AP, Sciacca RR, Romagnoli MF, et al. Ventriculostomy-related infections: a critical review of the literature. Neurosurgery. 2002;51(1):170–182.
    1. Arabi Y, Memish ZA, Balkhy HH, et al. Ventriculostomy-associated infections: incidence and risk factors. American Journal of Infection Control. 2005;33(3):137–143.
    1. Schade RP, Schinkel J, Visser LG, Van Dijk MC, Voormolen JHC, Kuijper EJ. Bacterial meningitis caused by the use of ventricular or lumbar cerebrospinal fluid catheters. Journal of Neurosurgery. 2005;102(2):229–234.
    1. Mayhall CG, Archer NH, Lamb VA. Ventriculostomy-related infections. A positive epidemiologic study. The New England Journal of Medicine. 1984;310(9):553–559.
    1. Lyke KE, Obasanjo OO, Williams MA, O’Brien M, Chotani R, Perl TM. Ventriculitis complicating use of intraventricular catheters in adult neurosurgical patients. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2001;33(12):2028–2033.
    1. Aucoin PJ, Rosen Kotilainen H, Gantz NM. Intracranial pressure monitors. Epidemiologic study of risk factors and infections. American Journal of Medicine. 1986;80(3):369–376.
    1. Hoefnagel D, Dammers R, Ter Laak-Poort MP, Avezaat CJJ. Risk factors for infections related to external ventricular drainage. Acta Neurochirurgica. 2008;150(3):209–214.
    1. Wong GKC, Poon WS, Wai S, Yu LM, Lyon D, Lam JMK. Failure of regular external ventricular drain exchange to reduce cerebrospinal fluid infection: result of a randomised controlled trial. Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery and Psychiatry. 2002;73(6):759–761.
    1. Pfisterer W, Mühlbauer M, Czech T, Reinprecht A. Early diagnosis of external ventricular drainage infection: results of a prospective study. Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery and Psychiatry. 2003;74(7):929–932.
    1. Lo CH, Spelman D, Bailey M, Cooper DJ, Rosenfeld JV, Brecknell JE. External ventricular drain infections are independent of drain duration: an argument against elective revision. Journal of Neurosurgery. 2007;106(3):378–383.
    1. Wong GKC, Poon WWS. External ventricular drain infection. Journal of Neurosurgery. 2007;107(1):248–249.
    1. Leverstein-Van Hall MA, Hopmans TEM, van der Sprenkel JWB, et al. A bundle approach to reduce the incidence of external ventricular and lumbar drain-related infections: clinical article. Journal of Neurosurgery. 2010;112(2):345–353.
    1. Beer R, Lackner P, Pfausler B, Schmutzhard E. Nosocomial ventriculitis and meningitis in neurocritical care patients. Journal of Neurology. 2008;255(11):1617–1624.
    1. Dasic D, Hanna SJ, Bojanic S, Kerr RSC. External ventricular drain infection: the effect of a strict protocol on infection rates and a review of the literature. British Journal of Neurosurgery. 2006;20(5):296–300.
    1. Sonabend AM, Korenfeld Y, Crisman C, Badjatia N, Mayer SA, Connolly ES. Prevention of ventriculostomy-related infections with prophylactic antibiotics and antibiotic-coated external ventricular drains: a systematic review. Neurosurgery. 2011;68(4):996–1005.
    1. Sundbarg G, Nordstrom C-H, Soderstrom S. Complications due to prolonged ventricular fluid pressure recording. British Journal of Neurosurgery. 1988;2(4):485–495.
    1. Muttaiyah S, Ritchie S, Upton A, Roberts S. Clinical parameters do not predict infection in patients with external ventricular drains: a retrospective observational study of daily cerebrospinal fluid analysis. Journal of Medical Microbiology. 2008;57(2):207–209.
    1. Wong GK, Poon WS, Ip M. Use of ventricular cerebrospinal fluid lactate measurement to diagnose cerebrospinal fluid infection in patients with intraventricular haemorrhage. Journal of Clinical Neuroscience. 2008;15(6):654–655.
    1. Pfausler B, Beer R, Engelhardt K, et al. Cell index—a new parameter for the early diagnosis of ventriculostomy (external ventricular drainage)-related ventriculitis in patients with intraventricular hemorrhage? Acta Neurochirurgica. 2004;146(5):477–481.
    1. Schade RP, Schinkel J, Roelandse FWC, et al. Lack of value of routine analysis of cerebrospinal fluid for prediction and diagnosis of external drainage-related bacterial meningitis. Journal of Neurosurgery. 2006;104(1):101–108.
    1. Hader WJ, Steinbok P. The value of routine cultures of the cerebrospinal fluid in patients with external ventricular drains. Neurosurgery. 2000;46(5):1149–1155.
    1. Walti LN, Conen A, Coward J, Jost GF, Trampuz A. Characteristics of infections associated with external ventricular drains of cerebrospinal fluid. Journal of Infection. 2013;66:424–431.
    1. Bémer P, Corvec S, Tariel S, et al. Significance of Propionibacterium acnes-positive samples in spinal instrumentation. Spine. 2008;33(26):E971–976.
    1. Chaudhary SB, Vives MJ, Basra SK, Reiter MF. Postoperative spinal wound infections and postprocedural diskitis. Journal of Spinal Cord Medicine. 2007;30(5):441–451.
    1. Bose B. Delayed infection after instrumented spine surgery: case reports and review of the literature. Spine Journal. 2003;3(5):394–399.
    1. Collins I, Wilson-MacDonald J, Chami G, et al. The diagnosis and management of infection following instrumented spinal fusion. European Spine Journal. 2008;17(3):445–450.
    1. Kowalski TJ, Berbari EF, Huddleston PM, Steckelberg JM, Mandrekar JN, Osmon DR. The management and outcome of spinal implant infections: contemporary retrospective cohort study. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2007;44(7):913–920.
    1. Kourbeti IS, Tsiodras S, Boumpas DT. Spinal infections: evolving concepts. Current Opinion in Rheumatology. 2008;20(4):471–479.
    1. Balériaux DL, Neugroschl C. Spinal and spinal cord infection. European Radiology, Supplement. 2004;14(3):E72–E83.
    1. Levi ADO, Dickman CA, Sonntag VKH. Management of postoperative infections after spinal instrumentation. Journal of Neurosurgery. 1997;86(6):975–980.
    1. Weinstein MA, McCabe JP, Cammisa FP., Jr. Postoperative spinal wound infection: a review of 2,391 consecutive index procedures. Journal of Spinal Disorders. 2000;13(5):422–426.
    1. Richards S. Delayed infections following posterior spinal instrumentation for the treatment of idiopathic scoliosis. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. American. 1995;77(4):524–529.
    1. Crémet L, Corvec S, Bémer P, et al. Orthopaedic-implant infections by Escherichia coli: molecular and phenotypic analysis of the causative strains. Journal of Infection. 2012;64(2):169–175.
    1. Osmon DR, Berbari EF, Berendt AR, et al. Diagnosis and management of prosthetic joint infection: clinical practice guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2013;56:e1–e25.
    1. Oprica C, Nord CE, Kalenic S, et al. European surveillance study on the antibiotic susceptibility of Propionibacterium acnes . Clinical Microbiology and Infection. 2005;11(3):204–213.
    1. Tafin UF, Corvec S, Betrisey B, Zimmerli W, Trampuz A. Role of rifampin against Propionibacterium acnes biofilm in vitro and in an experimental foreign-body infection model. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 2012;56(4):1885–1891.
    1. Rohacek M, Weisser M, Kobza R, et al. Bacterial colonization and infection of electrophysiological cardiac devices detected with sonication and swab culture. Circulation. 2010;121(15):1691–1697.
    1. Trampuz A, Piper KE, Hanssen AD, et al. Sonication of explanted prosthetic components in bags for diagnosis of prosthetic joint infection is associated with risk of contamination. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 2006;44(2):628–631.
    1. Ramage G, Tunney MM, Patrick S, Gorman SP, Nixon JR. Formation of Propionibacterium acnes biofilms on orthopaedic biomaterials and their susceptibility to antimicrobials. Biomaterials. 2003;24(19):3221–3227.
    1. Bayston R, Ashraf W, Barker-Davies R, et al. Biofilm formation by Propionibacterium acnes on biomaterials in vitro and in vivo: impact on diagnosis and treatment. Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part A. 2007;81(3):705–709.
    1. Roux A-L, Sivadon-Tardy V, Bauer T, et al. Diagnosis of prosthetic joint infection by beadmill processing of a periprosthetic specimen. Clinical Microbiology and Infection. 2011;17(3):447–450.

Source: PubMed

Sponsoren und Mitarbeiter

Krankheiten

Drogeninterventionen

3
Abonnieren