Assessing proprioception: A critical review of methods

Jia Han, Gordon Waddington, Roger Adams, Judith Anson, Yu Liu, Jia Han, Gordon Waddington, Roger Adams, Judith Anson, Yu Liu

Abstract

To control movement, the brain has to integrate proprioceptive information from a variety of mechanoreceptors. The role of proprioception in daily activities, exercise, and sports has been extensively investigated, using different techniques, yet the proprioceptive mechanisms underlying human movement control are still unclear. In the current work we have reviewed understanding of proprioception and the three testing methods: threshold to detection of passive motion, joint position reproduction, and active movement extent discrimination, all of which have been used for assessing proprioception. The origin of the methods, the different testing apparatus, and the procedures and protocols used in each approach are compared and discussed. Recommendations are made for choosing an appropriate technique when assessing proprioceptive mechanisms in different contexts.

Keywords: Joint motion sense; Joint position sense; Kinaesthesia; Movement discrimination; Proprioception.

Figures

Fig. 1
Fig. 1
Comparison of different apparatus employed in threshold to detection of passive motion (TTDPM), joint position reproduction (JPR), and active movement extent discrimination apparatus (AMEDA) proprioception tests, at the ankle, knee, and shoulder. (A) Adapted from Yasuda et al.; (B) adapted from Beynnon et al.; (C) adapted from Lephart et al.; (D) adapted from Willems et al.; (E) adapted from Larsen et al.; (F) adapted from Janwantanakul et al.; (G) adapted from Symes et al.; (H) adapted from Cameron and Adams; (I) adapted from Han et al.

References

    1. Goble D.J. Proprioceptive acuity assessment via joint position matching: from basic science to general practice. Phys Ther. 2010;90:1176–1184.
    1. Xerri C. Plasticity of cortical maps: multiple triggers for adaptive reorganization following brain damage and spinal cord injury. Neuroscientist. 2012;18:133–148.
    1. Xerri C., Merzenich M.M., Peterson B.E., Jenkins W. Plasticity of primary somatosensory cortex paralleling sensorimotor skill recovery from stroke in adult monkeys. J Neurophysiol. 1998;79:2119–2148.
    1. Pleger B., Schwenkreis P., Dinse H.R., Ragert P., Höffken O., Malin J.P. Pharmacological suppression of plastic changes in human primary somatosensory cortex after motor learning. Exp Brain Res. 2003;148:525–532.
    1. Schwenkreis P., Pleger B., Höffken O., Malin J.P., Tegenthoff M. Repetitive training of a synchronised movement induces short-term plastic changes in the human primary somatosensory cortex. Neurosci Lett. 2001;312:99–102.
    1. Ogard W.K. Proprioception in sports medicine and athletic conditioning. Strength Cond J. 2011;33:111–118.
    1. Bell C. On the nervous circle which connects the voluntary muscles with the brain. Philosophi Trans Royal Soc. 1826;116:163–173.
    1. Bastian H.C. The “muscular sense”: its nature and cortical localisation. Brain. 1887;10:1–88.
    1. Sherrington C.S., editor. The integrative action of the nervous system. Cambridge University Press; Cambridge: 1906.
    1. Swanik C.B., Lephart S.M., Rubash H.E. Proprioception, kinesthesia, and balance after total knee arthroplasty with cruciate-retaining and posterior stabilized prostheses. J Bone Jt Surg. 2004;86:328–334.
    1. Swanik K.A., Lephart S.M., Swanik C.B., Lephart S.P., Stone D.A., Fu F.H. The effects of shoulder plyometric training on proprioception and selected muscle performance characteristics. J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 2002;11:579–586.
    1. Safran M.R., Borsa P.A., Lephart S.M., Fu F.H., Warner J.J. Shoulder proprioception in baseball pitchers. J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 2001;10:438–444.
    1. Lephart S.M., Pincivero D.M., Giraldo J.L., Fu F.H. The role of proprioception in the management and rehabilitation of athletic injuries. Am J Sports Med. 1997;25:130–137.
    1. Myers J.B., Guskiewicz K.M., Schneider R.A., Prentice W.E. Proprioception and neuromuscular control of the shoulder after muscle fatigue. J Athl Train. 1999;34:362–367.
    1. Ergen E., Ulkar B. Proprioception and ankle injuries in soccer. Clin Sports Med. 2008;27:195–217.
    1. Wingert J.R., Burton H., Sinclair R.J., Brunstrom J.E., Damiano D.L. Joint position sense and kinesthesia in cerebral palsy. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2009;90:447–453.
    1. Duzgun I., Kanbur N.O., Baltaci G., Aydin T. Effect of tanner stage on proprioception accuracy. J Foot Ankle Surg. 2011;50:11–15.
    1. Maier M., Niklasch M., Dreher T., Wolf S.I., Zeifang F., Loew M. Proprioception 3 years after shoulder arthroplasty in 3D motion analysis: a prospective study. Arch Orthop Trauma Surg. 2012;132:1003–1010.
    1. Lephart S.M., Fu F.H. The role of proprioception in the treatment of sports injuries. Sports Exerc Inj. 1995;1:96–102.
    1. McCloskey D.I. Differences between the senses of movement and position shown by the effects of loading and vibration of muscles in man. Brain Res. 1973;61:119–131.
    1. Proske U., Gandevia S.C. The kinaesthetic senses. J Physiol London. 2009;587:4139–4146.
    1. McCloskey D.I. Kinesthetic sensibility. Physiol Rev. 1978;58:763–820.
    1. Clark F.J., Burgess R.C., Chapin J.W., Lipscomb W.T. Role of intramuscular receptors in the awareness of limb position. J Neurophysiol. 1985;54:1529–1540.
    1. Taylor J.L., McCloskey D.I. Ability to detect angular displacements of the fingers made at an imperceptibly slow speed. Brain. 1990;113:157–166.
    1. Gregory J.E., Morgan D.L., Proske U. After effects in the responses of cat muscle spindles and errors of limb position sense in man. J Neurophysiol. 1988;59:1220–1230.
    1. Stillman B.C. Making sense of proprioception: the meaning of proprioception, kinaesthesia and related terms. Physiotherapy. 2002;88:667–676.
    1. Clark F.J., Horch K.W. Kinesthesia. In: Boff K.R., Kaufman L., Thomas J.P., editors. Handbook of perception and human performance. Wiley; New York, NY: 1986. pp. 11–62.
    1. Schmidt R.A. Human Kinetics; Champaign, IL: 1991. Motor learning and performance: from principles to practice.
    1. Steinicke F., Whitton M.C., Lecuyer A., Mohler B. China; Hong Kong: 2011. Perceptually inspired methods for naturally navigating virtual worlds. SIGGRAPH Asia 2011 Courses.
    1. Schacter D.L., Gilbert D.T., Wegner D.M. Worth Publishers; New York, NY: 2010. Introducing psychology.
    1. Goldstein E.B. 8th ed. Wadswooth; Pacific Grove, CA: 2009. Sensation and perception.
    1. Bernstein D., Nash P. 4th ed. Houghton-Mifflin; Boston, MA: 2008. Essentials of psychology.
    1. Goble D.J., Noble B.C., Brown S.H. Proprioceptive target matching asymmetries in left-handed individuals. Exp Brain Res. 2009;197:403–408.
    1. Goble D.J., Noble B.C., Brown S.H. Proprioceptive target matching asymmetries in left-handed individuals. Exp Brain Res. 2009;197:403–408.
    1. Suprak D.N. Shoulder joint position sense is not enhanced at end range in an unconstrained task. Hum Move Sci. 2011;30:424–435.
    1. Han J. University of Canberra; Canberra: 2013. Multiple joint proprioception in movement discrimination. Dissertation.
    1. Han J., Anson J., Waddington G., Adams R. Proprioceptive performance of bilateral upper and lower limb joints: side-general and site-specific effects. Exp Brain Res. 2013;226:313–323.
    1. Waddington G., Adams R. Ability to discriminate movements at the ankle and knee is joint specific. Percept Mot Skills. 1999;89:1037–1041.
    1. Han J., Waddington G., Adams R., Anson J. A proprioceptive ability underlying all proprioception tests? Response to tremblay. Percept Mot Skills. 2014;119:301–304.
    1. Ashton-Miller J.A., Wojtys E.M., Huston L.J., Fry-Welch D. Can proprioception really be improved by exercises? Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2001;9:128–136.
    1. Witchalls J., Blanch P., Waddington G., Adams R. Intrinsic functional deficits associated with increased risk of ankle injuries: a systematic review with meta-analysis. Br J Sports Med. 2012;46:515–523.
    1. Lee H.M., Liau J.J., Cheng C.K., Tan C.M., Shih J.T. Evaluation of shoulder proprioception following muscle fatigue. Clin Biomech. 2003;18:843–847.
    1. Carpenter J.E., Blasier R.B., Pellizzon G.G. The effects of muscle fatigue on shoulder joint position sense. Am J Sports Med. 1998;26:262–265.
    1. Ribeiro F., Oliveira J. Aging effects on joint proprioception: the role of physical activity in proprioception preservation. Eur Rev Aging Phys Act. 2007;4:71–76.
    1. Ribeiro F., Oliveira J. Factors influencing proprioception: what do they reveal? In: Klika V., editor. Biomechanics in applications. InTech; Rijeka: 2011.
    1. Willems T.M., Witvrouw E., Delbaere K., Mahieu N., De Bourdeaudhuij I., De Clercq D. Intrinsic risk factors for inversion ankle sprains in male subjects — a prospective study. Am J Sports Med. 2005;33:415–423.
    1. Burke D., Hagbarth K.E., Lofstedt L., Wallin B.G. The responses of human muscle spindle endings to vibration of non-contracting muscles. J Physiol. 1976;261:673–693.
    1. Barrack R.L., Skinner H.B., Brunet M.E., Haddad R.J., Jr Functional performance of the knee after intraarticular anesthesia. Am J Sports Med. 1983;11:258–261.
    1. Clark F.J., Grigg P., Chapin J.W. The contribution of articular receptors to proprioception with the fingers in humans. J Neurophysiol. 1989;61:186–193.
    1. Proske U., Gandevia S.C. The proprioceptive senses: their roles in signalling body shape, body position and movement, and muscle force. Physiol Rev. 2012;92:1651–1697.
    1. Smetacek V., Mechsner F. Making sense. Nature. 2004;432:21.
    1. Provins K.A. The specificity of motor skill and manual asymmetry: a review of the evidence and its implications. J Mot Behav. 1997;29:183–192.
    1. Han J., Anson J., Waddington G., Adams R. Sport attainment and proprioception. Int J Sports Sci Coach. 2014;9:159–170.
    1. Han J., Waddington G., Anson J., Adams R. Level of competitive success achieved by elite athletes and multi-joint proprioceptive ability. J Sci Med Sport. 2015;18:77–81.
    1. Yogev-Seligmann G., Hausdorff J.M., Giladi N. The role of executive function and attention in gait. Mov Disord. 2008;23:329–342.
    1. Yasuda K., Sato Y., Iimura N., Iwata H. Allocation of attentional resources toward a secondary cognitive task leads to compromised ankle proprioceptive performance in healthy young adults. Rehabil Res Prac. 2014;2014:7.
    1. Goble D.J., Coxon J.P., Van Impe A., Geurts M., Doumas M., Wenderoth N. Brain activity during ankle proprioceptive stimulation predicts balance performance in young and older adults. J Neurosci. 2011;31:16344–16352.
    1. Liu J., Wang X.Q., Zheng J.J., Pan Y.J., Hua Y.H., Zhao S.M. Effects of Tai Chi versus proprioception exercise program on neuromuscular function of the ankle in elderly people: a randomized controlled trial. Evid Based Complement Altern Med. 2012;2012:265486.
    1. Guo L.Y., Yang C.P., You Y.L., Chen S.K., Yang C.H., Hou Y.Y. Underlying mechanisms of Tai-Chi-Chuan training for improving balance ability in the elders. Chin J Integr Med. 2014;20:409–415.
    1. Waddington G., Adams R.D. The effect of a 5-week wobble-board exercise intervention on ability to discriminate different degrees of ankle inversion, barefoot and wearing shoes: a study in healthy elderly. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2004;52:573–576.
    1. Nodehi-Moghadam A., Nasrin N., Kharazmi A., Eskandari Z. A comparative study on shoulder rotational strength, range of motion and proprioception between the throwing athletes and non-athletic persons. Asian J Sports Med. 2013;4:34–40.
    1. Lin C.H., Lien Y.H., Wang S.F., Tsauo J.Y. Hip and knee proprioception in elite, amateur, and novice tennis players. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2006;85:216–221.
    1. Muaidi Q.I., Nicholson L.L., Refshauge K.M. Do elite athletes exhibit enhanced proprioceptive acuity, range and strength of knee rotation compared with non-athletes? Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2009;19:103–112.
    1. Courtney C.A., Rine R., Jenk D.T., Collier P.D., Waters A. Enhanced proprioceptive acuity at the knee in the competitive athlete. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2013;43:422–426.
    1. Baker J., Horton S., Robertson-Wilson J., Wall M. Nurturing sport expertise: factors influencing the development of elite athlete. J Sports Sci Med. 2003;2:1–9.
    1. Cameron M., Adams R., Maher C. Motor control and strength as predictors of hamstring injury in elite players of Australian football. Phys Ther Sport. 2003;4:159–166.
    1. Lephart S.M., Fu F.H., editors. Proprioception and neuromuscular control in joint stability. Human Kinetics; Champaign, IL: 2000.
    1. Weerakkody N.S., Blouin J.S., Taylor J.L., Gandevia S.C. Local subcutaneous and muscle pain impairs detection of passive movements at the human thumb. J Physiol (London) 2008;586:3183–3193.
    1. Lephart S.M., Myers J.B., Bradley J.P., Fu F.H. Shoulder proprioception and function following thermal capsulorraphy. Arthroscopy. 2002;18:770–778.
    1. Waddington G., Adams R. Discrimination of active plantarflexion and inversion movements after ankle injury. Aust J Physiother. 1999;45:7–13.
    1. de Jong A., Kilbreath S.L., Refshauge K.M., Adams R. Performance in different proprioceptive tests does not correlate in ankles with recurrent sprain. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2005;86:2101–2105.
    1. Elangovan N., Herrmann A., Konczak J. Assessing proprioceptive function: evaluating joint position matching methods against psychophysical thresholds. Phys Ther. 2014;94:553–561.
    1. Blake R., Sekuler R. 5th ed. McGraw-Hill; New York, NY: 2005. Perception.
    1. Fechner G.T. Breitkopf und Härtel; Leipzig: 1860. Elemente der Psychophysik.
    1. Adams R., Lee K.Y., Waddington G., Lee H.J. James McKeen Cattell and the method of constant stimuli in the psychophysics of movement. Proc Fechner Day. 2012;28:18–23.
    1. Gescheider G.A. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; Mahwah, NJ: 1997. Psychophysics: the fundamentals.
    1. Fullerton G.S., Cattell J.M. University of Pennsylvania Press; Philadelphia, PA: 1892. On the perception of small differences: with special reference to the extent, force and time of movement.
    1. Woodworth R.S. The accuracy of voluntary movement. Psychol Rev. 1899;3:1–14.
    1. Magill R.A., Parks P.F. The psychophysics of kinesthesis for positioning responses: the physical stimulus-psychological response relationship. Res Q Exerc Sport. 1983;54:346–351.
    1. Woodworth R.S., Schlosberg H. Holt, Rinehart & Winston; New York, NY: 1965. Experimental psychology.
    1. Maher C., Adams R. A psychophysical evaluation of manual stiffness discrimination. Aust J Physiother. 1995;41:161–167.
    1. Anderson D.I. The discrimination, acquisition, and retention of aiming movements made with and without elastic resistance. Hum Factor. 1999;41:129–138.
    1. Tan H.Z., Srinivasan M.A., Reed C.M., Durlach N.I. Discrimination and identification of finger joint-angle position using active motion. ACM Trans Appl Percept. 2007;4:1–4.
    1. Pacey V., Adams R., Tofts L., Munns C., Nicholson L. Proprioceptive acuity into knee hypermobile range in children with joint hypermobility syndrome. Pediatr Rheumatol. 2014
    1. Waddington G., Adams R., Jones A. Wobble board (ankle disc) training effects on the discrimination of inversion movements. Aust J Physiother. 1999;45:95–101.
    1. Lee K.Y., Adams R., Lee H.J., Waddington G. Comparisons of indices of movement discrimination: psychometric function, information theory, and signal detection analysis. In: Leth-Steensen C., Schoenherr J.R., editors. Fechner Day 2012. The International Society of Psychophysics; Ottawa, ON: 2012.
    1. Morgan M.J., Watamaniuk S.N.J., McKee S.P. The use of an implicit standard for measuring discrimination thresholds. Vision Res. 2000;40:2341–2349.
    1. Woodworth R.S., Schlosberg H. Oxford and IBH Publishing; Oxford: 1954. Experimental psychology.
    1. Miller G.A. The magical number seven, plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychol Rev. 1956;63:81–97.
    1. Cameron M., Adams R. Kicking footedness and movement discrimination by elite Australian Rules footballers. J Sci Med Sport. 2003;6:266–274.
    1. Waddington G., Seward H., Wrigley T., Lacey N., Adams R. Comparing wobble board and jump-landing training effects on knee and ankle movement discrimination. J Sci Med Sport. 2000;3:449–459.
    1. Muaidi Q.L., Nicholson L.L., Refshauge K.M. Proprioceptive acuity in active rotation movements in healthy knees. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2008;89:371–376.
    1. Cameron M., Adams R.D., Maher C.G. The effect of neoprene shorts on leg proprioception in Australian football players. J Sci Med Sport. 2008;11:345–352.
    1. Hobbs A.J., Adams R.D., Shirley D., Hillier T.M. Comparison of lumbar proprioception as measured in unrestrained standing in individuals with disc replacement, with low back pain and without low back pain. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2010;40:439–446.
    1. Han J., Waddington G., Adams R., Anson J. Ability to discriminate movements at multiple joints around the body: global or site-specific. Percept Mot Skills. 2013;116:59–68.
    1. Lee H., Nicholson L., Adams R., Bae S.S. Proprioception and rotation range sensitization associated with subclinical neck pain. Spine. 2005;30:E60–7.
    1. Naughton J., Adams R.D., Maher C.G. Contacting points overhead with and without a tennis racquet. Percept Mot Skills. 2003;96:1323–1329.
    1. Whiteley R.J., Adams R.D., Nicholson L.L., Ginn K.A. Shoulder proprioception is associated with humeral torsion in adolescent baseball players. Phys Ther Sport. 2008;9:177–184.
    1. Han J., Waddington G., Adams R., Anson J. Bimanual proprioceptive performance differs for right- and left-handed individuals. Neurosci Lett. 2013;542:37–41.
    1. Han J., Waddington G., Anson J., Adams R. Does elastic resistance affect finger pinch discrimination? Hum Factor. 2013;55:976–984.
    1. Morimoto T., Hamada T., Kawamura Y. Alteration in directional specificity of interdental dimension discrimination with the degree of mouth opening. J Oral Rehabil. 1983;10:335–342.
    1. Morneburg T., Dohla S., Wichmann M., Proschel P. Afferent sensory mechanisms involved in jaw gape-related muscle activation in unilateral biting. Clin Oral Investig. 2014;18:883–890.
    1. Wycherley A.S., Helliwell P.S., Bird H.A. A novel device for the measurement of proprioception in the hand. Rheumatology. 2005;44:638–641.
    1. Refshauge K.M., Chan R., Taylor J.L., McCloskey D.I. Detection of movements imposed on human hip, knee, ankle and toe joints. J Physiol (London) 1995;488:231–241.
    1. Cordo P.J., Horn J.L., Küenster D., Cherry A., Bratt A., Gurfinkel V. Contributions of skin and muscle afferent input to movement sense in the human hand. J Neurophysiol. 2011;105:1879–1888.
    1. Nagai T., Sell T.C., Abt J.P., Lephart S.M. Reliability, precision, and gender differences in knee internal/external rotation proprioception measurements. Phys Ther Sport. 2012;13:233–237.
    1. Gibson J.J. George Allen & Unwin Ltd.; London: 1966. The senses considered as perceptual systems.
    1. Laszlo J.I. Motor control and learning: how far do the experimental tasks restrict our theoretical insight? In: Summers J.J., editor. Approaches to the study of motor control and learning. Elsevier; Amsterdam: 1992. pp. 47–79.
    1. Ashton-Miller J.A. Proprioceptive thresholds at the ankle: implications for the prevention of ligament injury. In: Lephart S.M., Fu F.H., editors. Proprioception and neuromuscular control in joint stability. Human Kinetics; Champaign, IL: 2000. pp. 279–289.
    1. Taylor A., Sluckin W., Davies D.R., Reason J.T., Thomson R., Colman A.M. Penguin Books; Harmondsworth: 1982. Introducing psychology.
    1. Gibson J.J. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; New Jersey, NJ: 1979. The ecological approach to visual perception.
    1. Gandevia S.C., McCloskey D.I., Burke D. Kinaesthetic signals and muscle contraction. Trends Neurosci. 1992;15:62–65.
    1. Zazulak B.T., Hewett T.E., Reeves N.P., Goldberg B., Cholewicki J. The effects of core proprioception on knee injury: a prospective biomechanical-epidemiological study. Am J Sports Med. 2007;35:368–373.
    1. Kurian G., Sharma N.K., Santhakumari K. Left-arm dominance in active positioning. Percept Mot Skills. 1989;68:1312–1314.
    1. Macfadyen N., Maher C.G., Adams R. Number of sampling movements and manual stiffness judgments. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 1998;21:604–610.
    1. Bullock-Saxton J.E., Wong W.J., Hogan N. The influence of age on weight-bearing joint reposition sense of the knee. Exp Brain Res. 2001;136:400–406.
    1. Adamo D.E., Alexander N.B., Brown S.H. The influence of age and physical activity on upper limb proprioceptive ability. J Aging Phys Act. 2009;17:272–293.
    1. Piriyaprasarth P., Morris M.E., Delany C., Winter A., Finch S. Trials needed to assess knee proprioception following stroke. Physiother Res Int. 2009;14:6–16.
    1. Clark F.J., Larwood K.J., Davis M.E., Deffenbacher K.A. A metric for assessing acuity in positioning joints and limbs. Exp Brain Res. 1995;107:73–79.
    1. Faisal A.A., Selen L.P.J., Wolpert D.M. Noise in the nervous system. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2008;9:292–303.
    1. Swets J.A., Dawes R.M., Monahan J. Better decisions through science. Sci Am. 2000;283:82–87.
    1. Swets J.A. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.; Hillsdale, NJ: 1996. Signal detection theory and ROC analysis in psychology and diagnostics: collected papers.
    1. Swets J.A., editor. Tulips to thresholds: counterpart careers of the author and signal detection theory. Peninsula Publishing; Los Altos Hills, CA: 2010.
    1. McNicol D. Routledge; New York, NY: 2004. A primer of signal detection theory; pp. 24–105.
    1. Rosker J.S. Kinaesthesia and methods for its assessment. Sport Sci Rev. 2010;19:165–208.
    1. Sanes J.N., Shadmehr R. Sense of muscular effort and somesthetic afferent information in humans. Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 1995;73:223–233.
    1. Smirmaul Bde. P. Sense of effort and other unpleasant sensations during exercise: clarifying concepts and mechanisms. Br J Sports Med. 2012;46:308–311.
    1. Lowrey C.R., Strzalkowski N.D., Bent L.R. Skin sensory information from the dorsum of the foot and ankle is necessary for kinesthesia at the ankle joint. Neurosci Lett. 2010;485:6–10.
    1. Weerakkody N.S., Mahns D.A., Taylor J.L., Gandevia S.C. Impairment of human proprioception by high-frequency cutaneous vibration. J Physiol (London) 2007;581:971–980.
    1. Willems T.M., Witvrouw E., Delbaere K., Philippaerts R., De Bourdeaudhuij I., De Clercq D. Intrinsic risk factors for inversion ankle sprains in females: a prospective study. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2005;15:336–345.
    1. Beynnon B.D., Ryder S.H., Konradsen L., Johnson R.J., Johnson K., Renstrom P.A. The effect of anterior cruciate ligament trauma and bracing on knee proprioception. Am J Sports Med. 1999;27:150–155.
    1. Lephart S.M., Warner J.J., Borsa P.A., Fu F.H. Proprioception of the shoulder joint in healthy, unstable, and surgically repaired shoulders. J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 1994;3:371–380.
    1. Willems T., Witvrouw E., Verstuyft J., Vaes P., De Clercq D. Proprioception and muscle strength in subjects with a history of ankle sprains and chronic instability. J Athl Train. 2002;37:487–493.
    1. Larsen R., Lund H., Christensen R., Rogind H., Danneskiold-Samsoe B., Bliddal H. Effect of static stretching of quadriceps and hamstring muscles on knee joint position sense. Br J Sports Med. 2005;39:43–46.
    1. Janwantanakul P., Magarey M.E., Jones M.A., Dansie B.R. Variation in shoulder position sense at mid and extreme range of motion. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2001;82:840–844.
    1. Symes M., Waddington G., Adams R. Depth of ankle inversion and discrimination of foot positions. Percept Mot Skills. 2010;111:475–484.

Source: PubMed

Sponsoren und Mitarbeiter

Krankheiten

Drogeninterventionen

3
Abonnieren