Natural history of tuberculosis: duration and fatality of untreated pulmonary tuberculosis in HIV negative patients: a systematic review

Edine W Tiemersma, Marieke J van der Werf, Martien W Borgdorff, Brian G Williams, Nico J D Nagelkerke, Edine W Tiemersma, Marieke J van der Werf, Martien W Borgdorff, Brian G Williams, Nico J D Nagelkerke

Abstract

Background: The prognosis, specifically the case fatality and duration, of untreated tuberculosis is important as many patients are not correctly diagnosed and therefore receive inadequate or no treatment. Furthermore, duration and case fatality of tuberculosis are key parameters in interpreting epidemiological data.

Methodology and principal findings: To estimate the duration and case fatality of untreated pulmonary tuberculosis in HIV negative patients we reviewed studies from the pre-chemotherapy era. Untreated smear-positive tuberculosis among HIV negative individuals has a 10-year case fatality variously reported between 53% and 86%, with a weighted mean of 70%. Ten-year case fatality of culture-positive smear-negative tuberculosis was nowhere reported directly but can be indirectly estimated to be approximately 20%. The duration of tuberculosis from onset to cure or death is approximately 3 years and appears to be similar for smear-positive and smear-negative tuberculosis.

Conclusions: Current models of untreated tuberculosis that assume a total duration of 2 years until self-cure or death underestimate the duration of disease by about one year, but their case fatality estimates of 70% for smear-positive and 20% for culture-positive smear-negative tuberculosis appear to be satisfactory.

Conflict of interest statement

Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Figures

Figure 1. Selection of papers.
Figure 1. Selection of papers.
Flowchart schematically showing inclusion and exclusion of papers. Those marked with a * were excluded either because they were referred to at places in the text that did not discuss duration of tuberculosis, tuberculosis mortality, case fatality, life tables or natural history, or because the title indicated that the paper was not about one of these topics; ** for two of these, data were included to the extent mentioned by Berg (see legend of Table 3).

References

    1. Dubos RJ. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press; 1987. The white plague: Tuberculosis, man, and society.320
    1. Johnston W. Harvard East Asian Monographs 162. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center; 1995. The modern epidemic: A history of tuberculosis in Japan.432
    1. Ryan F. Bromsgrove: Swift Publishers; 1992. Tuberculosis: The greatest story never told.446
    1. Anonymous . Pnom Penh, Cambodia: National Tuberculosis Program; 2005. National TB prevalence survey, 2002.77
    1. Hoa NB, Sy DN, Nhung NV, Tiemersma EW, Borgdorff MW, Cobelens FG. A national survey of tuberculosis prevalence in Vietnam. Bull World Health Organ. 2010;88:273–280.
    1. Steingart KR, Henry M, Ng V, Hopewell PC, Ramsay A, et al. Fluorescence versus conventional sputum smear microscopy for tuberculosis: a systematic review. Lancet Infect Dis. 2006;6:570–581.
    1. Dye C, Watt CJ, Bleed DM, Hosseini SM, Raviglione MC. Evolution of tuberculosis control and prospects for reducing tuberculosis incidence, prevalence, and deaths globally. JAMA. 2005;293:2767–2775.
    1. Chan ED, Iseman MD. Multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis: a review. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2008;21:587–595.
    1. Dye C, Bassili A, Bierrenbach AL, Broekmans JF, Chadha VK, et al. Measuring tuberculosis burden, trends, and the impact of control programmes. Lancet Infect Dis. 2008;8:233–243.
    1. Korenromp EL, Bierrenbach AL, Williams BG, Dye C. The measurement and estimation of tuberculosis mortality. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2009;13:283–303.
    1. Espinal MA, Kim SJ, Suarez PG, Kam KM, Khomenko AG, et al. Standard short-course chemotherapy for drug-resistant tuberculosis: treatment outcomes in 6 countries. JAMA. 2000;283:2537–2545.
    1. Cox H, Kebede Y, Allamuratova S, Ismailov G, Davletmuratova Z, et al. Tuberculosis recurrence and mortality after successful treatment: impact of drug resistance. PLoS Med. 2006;3:e384.
    1. Quy HT, Cobelens FG, Lan NT, Buu TN, Lambregts CS, et al. Treatment outcomes by drug resistance and HIV status among tuberculosis patients in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2006;10:45–51.
    1. Bonnet M, Ramsay A, Gagnidze L, Githui W, Guerin PJ, et al. Reducing the number of sputum samples examined and thresholds for positivity: an opportunity to optimise smear microscopy. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2007;11:953–958.
    1. Gagneux S, Long CD, Small PM, Van T, Schoolnik GK, et al. The competitive cost of antibiotic resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Science. 2006;312:1944–1946.
    1. Akksilp S, Karnkawinpong O, Wattanaamornkiat W, Viriyakitja D, Monkongdee P, et al. Antiretroviral therapy during tuberculosis treatment and marked reduction in death rate of HIV-infected patients, Thailand. Emerg Infect Dis. 2007;13:1001–1007.
    1. WHO Global tuberculosis control: Surveillance, planning, financing. WHO report 2008. Geneva: World Health Organization. 2008 WHO/HTM/TB/2008.393.294 p.
    1. Rieder HL. Paris: International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease ; 1999. Epidemiological basis of tuberculosis control.162
    1. Rutledge JA, Crouch JB. The ultimate results in 1654 cases of tuberculosis treated at the modern Woodmen of America sanatorium. Am Rev Tuberc. 1919;2:755–763.
    1. Armstrong DB. Four years of the Framingham Demonstration. Am Rev Tuberc. 1921;4:908–919.
    1. Hilleboe HE. Survivorship rate on collapse therapy patients discharged from sanatoria. Chest. 1940;6:104–110.
    1. Hilleboe HE. Post-sanatorium tuberculosis survival rates in Minnesota. Public Health Reports. 1941;56:895–907.
    1. Gauld RL, Halliday CH, Cullen VF, Fales WT. A five year follow-up of discharges from Maryland tuberculosis sanatoria. Am J Public Health Nations Health. 1941;31:568–576.
    1. Loewenstein E. Die Zuchtung der Tuberkelbazillen aus dem stroemenden Blute. Zentralbl Bakteriol Parasitenkd Infektionskr Hyg. 1931;1:127.
    1. Jensen KA. Reinzuchtung und Typenbestimmung von Tuberkelbazillenstammen. Zentralb Bakteriol Parasitenkd Infektionskr Hyg Abt. 1932;1:222.
    1. van Cleeff MR, Kivihya-Ndugga LE, Meme H, Odhiambo JA, Klatser PR. The role and performance of chest X-ray for the diagnosis of tuberculosis: a cost-effectiveness analysis in Nairobi, Kenya. BMC Infect Dis. 2005;5:111.
    1. Corbett EL, Watt CJ, Walker N, Maher D, Williams BG, et al. The growing burden of tuberculosis: global trends and interactions with the HIV epidemic. Arch Intern Med. 2003;163:1009–1021.
    1. Dooley KE, Chaisson RE. Tuberculosis and diabetes mellitus: convergence of two epidemics. Lancet Infect Dis. 2009;9:737–746.
    1. National Tuberculosis Institute. Tuberculosis in a rural population of South India: a five-year epidemiological study. Bull World Health Organ. 1974;51:473–488.
    1. Hamel GH. Jahresversammlung des Deutschen Zentral-komitees zur Bekämpfung der Tuberkulose. Erster Verhandlungstag. (discussions during annual meeting of the German Tuberculosis Control Committee). Zeitschr Tuberk. 1928;51:497–531.
    1. Meidell B. Die wahrscheinliche Lebensdauer und die Sterblichkeitsmessung. Skandinavisk aktuarietidskrift. 1931;14:217–230.
    1. Anonymous The expectation of life of the tuberculous. Tubercle. 1936;17:171–172.
    1. Westergaard H. Jena, Germany: Gustav Fischer Verlag; 1901. Die Lehre von der Mortalität und Morbidität. Antropologisch-statistische Untersuchungen.703
    1. Anonymous Tuberculosis mortality. Lancet. 1953;1:178–179.
    1. Fraser R. Chances of survival in pulmonary tuberculosis. Br Med J. 1948;2:106.
    1. Maguire R. The Harveian Lectures on Prognosis and Treatment in Pulmonary Tuberculosis: Delivered before the Harveian Society of London, November, 1900. Br Med J. 1900;2:1637–1639.
    1. Maguire R. The Harveian Lectures on Prognosis and Treatment in Pulmonary Tuberculosis: Delivered before the Harveian Society of London, November, 1900. Br Med J. 1900;2:1695–1697.
    1. Maguire R. The Harveian Lectures on Prognosis and Treatment in Pulmonary Tuberculosis: Delivered before the Harveian Society of London, November, 1900. Br Med J. 1900;2:1566–1567.
    1. Braeuning H. Typische Formen der Lungentuberkulose. Beitr Klin Tuberk. 1924;58:429–450.
    1. Cummins SL. The problem of the acute pulmonary phthisis of young females. Brit J Tuberc. 1935;29:4–11.
    1. Gottstein A. Berlin, Germany: Springer Verlag ; 1931. Allgemeine Epidemiologie der Tuberkulose.123
    1. Oldenburg F, Seïsoff C. Gedanken über das Schicksal offentuberkulöser Eisenbahner auf Grund statistischer Erhebungen. Zeitschr Tuberk. 1931;61:334–349.
    1. Hillerdal O. The mortality from tuberculosis in a Swedish county. Acta Tuberc Pneumonol Scand. 1963;42:251–262.
    1. Paine AL, Matwichuk Z. Five- to seventeen-year end-results in 402 patients with pulmonary resection for tuberculosis. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1964;90:760–770.
    1. Phillips S. Relapse in treated cases of pulmonary tuberculosis. I. Three-year follow-up of 312 patients discharged from the hospital with medical approval, 1947-1954. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1964;90:120–122.
    1. Phillips S. Relapse in treated cases of pulmonary tuberculosis. II. Six-year follow-up of 109 patients discharged from the hospital with medical approval, 1955-1956. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1964;90:61–66.
    1. Elderton WP, Perry SJ. London: Department of applied mathematics, University College, University of London; 1910. A third study of the statistics of pulmonary tuberculosis. The mortality of the tuberculous and sanatorium treatment. Draper's Company Research Memoirs. Studies in natural deterioration VI.36
    1. Elderton WP, Perry SJ. London: Department of applied statistics, University College, University of London; 1913. A fourth study of the statistics of pulmonary tuberculosis. The mortality of the tuberculous: sanatorium and tuberculin treatment. Draper's Company Research Memoirs. Studies in natural deterioration VIII.55
    1. Frimødt-Moller J. A community-wide tuberculosis study in a South Indian rural population, 1950-1955. Bull World Health Organ. 1960;22:61–170.
    1. Geissler D. Das Schiksal offen tuberkulöser Kinder. Beitr Klin Tuberk. 1923;55:155–156.
    1. Hilleboe HE. The comparative mortality of patients discharged from tuberculosis sanatoria. Am Rev Tuberc. 1936;34:713–724.
    1. Bardswell ND, Thompson JHR. Pulmonary tuberculosis. Mortality after sanatorium treatment. A report on the experience of the King Edward VII Sanatorium, Midhurst. 1919. pp. 5–39. London, UK.
    1. Lowe CR. Recent trends in survival of patients with respiratory tuberculosis. Br J Prev Soc Med. 1954;8:91–98.
    1. May W. Welche Konsequenzen ergeben sich aus der Dauerstatistik der Heilverfahren bei Offentuberkulösen? Zeitschr Tuberk. 1928;51:177–184.
    1. Ruge H. Dauererfolge nach 10 Jahren bei Lungetuberkulose im Hochgebirge. Zeitsch Tuberk. 1909;15:146–168.
    1. Saegler E. Beitrag zur Frage der Beziehungen zwischen Tuberkulose und Lebensalter. Zeitschr Tuberk. 1934;71:285–288.
    1. Stadler E. Der Einfluss der Lungetuberkulose of Lebensdauer und Erwerbsfähigkeit und der Werth der Volksheilstättenbehandlung. Deutsch Arch Klin Med. 1903;95:412–440.
    1. Stephens MG. Follow-up of 1041 tuberculous patients. Am Rev Tuberc. 1941;44:451–462.
    1. Von Düring K. Zur Frage der Prognose und Therapie der tuberkulösen Lungenkavernen. Beitr Klin Tuberk. 1927;65:694–712.
    1. Williams CT. On the duration of phthisis pulmonalis and on certain conditions which influence it. Roy Med Chir Trans. 1871;54:95–127.
    1. Ames WR, Schuck MH. General population roentgenographic surveys: subsequent course of persons considered to have tuberculosis. Am Rev Tuberc. 1953;68:9–23.
    1. Katz J. Survival of tuberculous patients. Am Rev Tuberc. 1952;66:651–665.
    1. Katz J, Kunofsky S, Locke BZ. Tuberculosis morbidity and mortality among mental patients as compared with the general population. Am Rev Tuberc. 1954;70:32–48.
    1. Brewster AW, Fletcher RC. Studies of patients discharged from tuberculosis sanatoria; mortality rates associated with selected characteristics of the patient population. Public Health Rep. 1949;64:687–706.
    1. Puffer RR, Stewart HC, Gass RS. Analysis of the subsequent course of diagnosed cases of tuberculosis. Am J Public Health Nations Health. 1939;29:894–899.
    1. Stobie W. Prognosis in pulmonary tuberculosis. Br Med J. 1933;1:507–509.
    1. Gillespie JR. Prognosis in pulmonary tuberculosis. Br Med J. 1928;1:436–437.
    1. Clark WR. The prognosis in pulmonary tuberculosis. Cal State J Med. 1914;12:319–322.
    1. Cohen D. Rorschach scores, prognosis, and course of illness in pulmonary tuberculosis. J Consult Psychol. 1954;18:405–408.
    1. Wittkower ED, Durost HB, Laing WA. A psychosomatic study of the course of pulmonary tuberculosis. Am Rev Tuberc. 1955;71:201–219.
    1. Simpson DG, Lowell AM. Tuberculosis first registered at death. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1964;89:165–174.
    1. Holst PF, Nicolaysen L, Ustvedt Y. Untersuchungen über die Lebensdauer der Schwindsüchtigen in Norwegen. Deutsch Arch Klin Med. 1906;88:325–350.
    1. Horwitz O, Knudsen J. Comparison between attenders and non-attenders at the Danish mass tuberculosis campaign, 1950-52. Tuberculosis morbidity and general mortality in two groups during the first four years of follow-up. Bull World Health Organ. 1960;23:669–681.
    1. Braeuning H. Tuberkulöse Erkrankungen bei Schwestern infolge von Ansteckung im Dienst und ihre Verhütung. Zeitschr Tuberk. 1920;33:129–136.
    1. Cochrane E. Course, complications and prognosis of open pulmonary tuberculosis in children. Tubercle. 1935;16:529–538.
    1. De Besche AD, Jørgenson JO. Dødeligheten av Lungentuberkulose i Oslo blandt til Byen indflyttede og der fødte Individer. Norsk Magazin for Laegevidenskaben. 1925;86:1229–1253.
    1. Gottstein A. Öffentliches Gesundheitswesen. Beiträge zur Epidemiologie der Tuberkulose. Klin Wochenschrift. 1931;10:796–798.
    1. Hamel GH. Berlin, Germany: Springer Verlag; 1912. Tuberkulosearbeiten aus dem Kaiserlichen Gesundheitsamte. Deutsche Heilstätten für Lungenkranke. Geschichtliche und statistische Mitteilungen V. 13. Heft.124
    1. Kayser-Petersen JE. Offene und geschlossene Lungentuberkulose. Beitr Klin Tuberk. 1926;63:503–514.
    1. Kayser-Petersen JE, Räder M. Über Veränderungen in der Tuberkulosemorbidität und –mortalität mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der aus bereits bekannten geschlossenen Tuberkulosen entstehenden offenen Tuberkulosen. Beitr Klin Tuberk. 1934;84:492–499.
    1. Klare K. Zur Prognose der offenen Lungentuberkulose im Kindesalter. Beitr Klin Tuberk. 1922;50:318–321.
    1. Klare K. Die Prognose der offenen Lungentuberkulose bei Kindern und Jugendlichen. Beitr Klin Tuberk. 1936;88:268–282.
    1. Krause K. Über das Schicksal Offentuberkulöser in 25 Jahren. Beitr Klin Tuberk. 1927;67:386–388.
    1. Lewis-Faning E. Respiratory tuberculosis: effect of the war on the length of the interval between notification and death. BMJ. 1943;2:684–685.
    1. Lissant Cox G. Sanatorium treatment contrasted with home treatment. After-histories of 4067 cases. Brit J Tuberc. 1923;1:27–30.
    1. Palmer CE, Jablon S, Edwards PQ. Tuberculosis morbidity of young men in relation to tuberculin sensitivity and body build. Am Rev Tuberc. 1957;76:517–539.
    1. Narain R, Geser A, Jambunathan MV, Subramanian M. Tuberculosis prevalence survey in Tumkur district. Ind J Tuberc. 1963;10:85–116.
    1. Roloff W. Dauererfolge der Lungenkollapsbehandlung. Statistischer Bericht über 1128 Fälle aus den Jahren 1918-1928. Beitr Klin Tuberk. 1931;78:495–516.
    1. Trauger DA. A note on tuberculosis epidemiology. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1963;87:582–584.
    1. Van Joost CRNF. Opmerkingen naar aanleiding van een 200 tal met kunstmatige pneumothorax- en een 50 tal met middenrifsverlamming (phrenicusexairesis) behandelde gevallen van longtuberculose. Geneeskund Tijdschr v Ned Indië. 1935;75:1223–1235.
    1. Von Frisch AV. Über Prognostik der Lungentuberkulose. Beitr Klin Tuberk. 1925;62:629–657.
    1. McDonald JC. Factors influencing sex differences in mortality from respiratory tuberculosis in England and Wales. Br J Soc Med. 1952;6:259–264.
    1. Comstock GW, Burke MH. Tuberculosis studies in Muscogee County, Georgia. III. Tuberculosis mortality following a community-wide X-ray survey. Public Health Rep. 1951;66:695–711.
    1. Stephani J. Prognosis in pulmonary tuberculosis. Br J Tuberc Dis Chest. 1951;45:1–6.
    1. Daw RH. Tuberculosis mortality. Lancet. 1950;1:830.
    1. Elliot W. Tuberculosis; certain unexplained mortality figures. Br Med J. 1949;2:297–299.
    1. Bentley FJ. Survival in pulmonary tuberculosis. Br Med J. 1948;1:1254.
    1. Kasius RV, Halpin EH. Deaths from respiratory tuberculosis in institutions in the United States, 1945. Public Health Rep. 1947;62:1296–1315.
    1. Heise FH. Prognosis of pulmonary tuberculosis. Can Med Assoc J. 1921;11:314–318.
    1. Berg G. Statistik über Tuberkulosemortalität in Kriegszeiten. Beitr Klin Tuberk. 1951;106:1–9.
    1. McDonald JC, Springett VH. The decline of tuberculosis mortality in Western Europe. Br Med Bull. 1954;10:77–81.
    1. Wegelius C, Bauer HJ. Einwirkung des Schirmbildverfahrens auf Tuberkulose-Morbidität und Prognose. Beitr Klin Tuberk. 1957;117:101.
    1. Muntendam P. The influence of the social milieu on the manifestation and course of tuberculosis. Acta Tuberc Scand. 1959;37:63–88.
    1. Benjamin B. Actuarial methods of mortality analysis; adaptation to changes in the age and cause pattern. Proc R Soc Lond Series B. 1963;159:38–65.
    1. Van Vliet B. Analyse van de sterfte aan longtuberculose te Amsterdam in de jaren 1960 en 1961. Ned Tijdschr Geneesk. 1963;107:2180–2181.
    1. Horwitz O, Palmer CE. Epidemiological basis of tuberculosis eradication. II. Dynamics of tuberculosis morbidity and mortality. Bull World Health Organ. 1964;30:609–621.
    1. Doege TC. Tuberculosis mortality in the United States, 1900 to 1960. JAMA. 1965;192:1045–1048.
    1. Kerntke G. Tuberculosis mortality in Stuttgart, 1957-1961. Beitr Klinik Erforschung Tuberk Lungenkrankh. 1965;131:382–406.
    1. Hillerdal O. The altered prognosis in tuberculosis. Svenska Läkartidningen. 1963;60:1059–1071.
    1. Jones DS. The health care experiments at Many Farms: the Navajo, tuberculosis, and the limits of modern medicine, 1952-1962. Bull Hist Med. 2002;76:749–790.
    1. Frieden TR. Can tuberculosis be controlled? Int J Epidemiol. 2002;31:894–899.
    1. Corbett EL, Churchyard GJ, Charalambos S, Samb B, Moloi V, et al. Morbidity and mortality in South African gold miners: impact of untreated disease due to human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;34:1251–1258.
    1. Pamra SP, Goyal SS, Mathur GP. Changes in prevalence and incidence of pulmonary tuberculosis in Delhi in recent years. Ind J Tuberc. 1973;20:57–64.
    1. Raviglione MC, editor. A comprehensive international approach. Part A. 3rd ed. New York: Informa Health Care; 2006. Reichman and Hershfield's Tuberculosis.715
    1. Berg G. The prognosis of open pulmonaty tuberculosis. A clinical-statistical study. Acta Tuberc Scand suppl. 1939;IV:1–206.
    1. Drolet GJ. Present trend of case fatality rates in tuberculosis. Amer Rev Tuberc. 1938;37:125–151.
    1. Trail RR, Stockman GD. A report upon the experience of the patients of the King Edward VII Sanatorium, Midhurst, with particular reference to their mortality after treatment. 1931. Pulmonary Tuberculosis: Sept.
    1. Hartley PHS, Wingfield RC, Burrows VA. Frimley, UK: Brompton Hospital Sanatorium; 1935. The expectation of survival in pulmonary tuberculosis. Brompton Hospital Reports IV.
    1. Sinding-Larsen CMF. On the collapse treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis. A clinical adaption and follow-up examination of the material from Vejlefjord Sanatorium, 1906-1932. Acta Med Scand. 1937;91:39–132.
    1. Backer JE. Oslo: Norske Videnskaps-Akademi ; 1937. Dodeligheten blandt lungetuberkulose. En statistik undersokelse vedkommende patienter anmeldt til Oslo Helserad i 1911 - 1930 op patienter behandlet pa Vardasen Sanatorium i 1923 - 1934.131
    1. Krebs W. Die Fälle von Lungentuberkulose in der aargauischen Heilstätte Barmelweid aus den Jahren 1912–1927. Beitr Klin Tuberk. 1930;74:345–379.
    1. Fürth E. Zur Frage der Lebensdauer bei Aktiver Tuberkulose. Beitr Klin Tuberk. 1931;76:573–587.
    1. Tattersall WH. The survival of sputum-positive consumptives. A study of 1192 cases in a county borough between 1914 and 1940. Tubercle. 1947;28:85–96.
    1. Tattersall WH. The survival of sputum-positive consumptives. A study of 1192 cases in a county borough between 1914 and 1940. Tubercle. 1947;28:107–114.
    1. Magnusson S. Über den Verlauf und die Letalität der Tuberkulose in den verschiedenen Altersperioden. Acta Tuberc Scand. 1938;12:201–263.
    1. Münchbach W. Das Schicksal des lungentuberkulösen Erwachsenen. Ergibnisse der Heilstattenbehandlung von annähernd 10000 Männern und Frauen. Tuberkulose-Bibliothek. 1933;49:64.
    1. Braeuning H, Neissen A. Prognose der offenen Tuberkulose, Technik der Prognose-stellung und Rentabilität des Heilverfahrens. Zeitschr Tuberk. 1936;75:305–323.
    1. Braeuning H, Neissen A. Die Prognose der offenen Lungentuberkulose. Tuberkulose-Bibliothek. 1933;52:40.
    1. Griep WA. [Thesis] Amsterdam: University of Amsterdam; 1939. De prognose van de open longtuberculose.87
    1. Baart de la Faille RL. [Thesis] Utrecht: University of Utrecht; 1939. Onderzoek naar de resultaten der tuberculosebehandeling in het sanatorium “Berg en Bosch”.143
    1. Buhl K, Nyboe J. Epidemiological basis of tuberculosis eradication. 9. Changes in the mortality of Danish tuberculosis patients since 1925. Bull World Health Organ. 1967;37:907–925.
    1. Lindhardt M. Copenhagen: Ejnaar Munksgaard; 1939. The statistics of pulmonary tuberculosis in Denmark 1925-1934. A statistical investigation on the occurrence of pulmonary tuberculosis in the period 1925-1934, worked out on the basis of the Danish National Health Service file of notified cases and of deaths.179
    1. Thompson BC. Survival rates in pulmonary tuberculosis. BMJ. 1943;2:721.
    1. Braeuning H. Über die Letalität, Morbidität und Infektionsdauer der offenen Lungentuberkulose. Zeitschr Tuberk. 1930;59:109–111.
    1. Armstrong DB. The medical aspects of the Framingham Community Health and Tuberculosis Demonstration. Int J Epidemiol. 2005;34:1183–1187.
    1. Comstock GW. Commentary: the first Framingham Study—a pioneer in community-based participatory research. Int J Epidemiol. 2005;34:1188–1190.
    1. Kannel WB, Levy D. Commentary: Medical aspects of the Framingham Community Health and Tuberculosis Demonstration. Int J Epidemiol. 2005;34:1187–1188.
    1. Den Boon S, White NW, van Lill SW, Borgdorff MW, Verver S, et al. An evaluation of symptom and chest radiographic screening in tuberculosis prevalence surveys. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2006;10:876–882.
    1. Van der Werf MJ, Borgdorff MW. How to measure the prevalence of tuberculosis in a population. Trop Med Int Health. 2007;12:475–484.
    1. Lambert ML, Hasker E, Van Deun A, Roberfroid D, Boelaert M, et al. Recurrence in tuberculosis: relapse or reinfection? Lancet Infect Dis. 2003;3:282–287.
    1. Ray D, Abel R. Incidence of smear-positive pulmonary tuberculosis from 1981-83 in a rural area under an active health care programme in south India. Tuberc Lung Dis. 1995;76:190–195.
    1. Radhakrishna S, Frieden TR, Subramani R, Santha T, Narayanan PR. Additional risk of developing TB for household members with a TB case at home at intake: A 15-year study. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2007;11:282–288.
    1. Payne B, Bellamy R. Tuberculosis in people with HIV. BMJ Clin Evid. 2007;12:920. Available: . Accessed 16 August 2009.
    1. Wells CD, Cegielski JP, Nelson LJ, Laserson KF, Holtz TH, et al. HIV infection and multidrug-resistant tuberculosis: the perfect storm. J Infect Dis. 2007;196:S86–107.
    1. Small PM, Schecter GF, Goodman PC, Sande MA, Chaisson RE, et al. Treatment of tuberculosis in patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med. 1991;324:289–294.
    1. Kang'ombe C, Harries AD, Banda H, Nyangulu DS, Whitty CJ, et al. High mortality rates in tuberculosis patients in Zomba Hospital, Malawi, during 32 months of follow-up. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2000;94:305–309.
    1. Moro ML, Gori A, Errante I, Infuso A, Franzetti F, et al. An outbreak of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis involving HIV-infected patients of two hospitals in Milan, Italy. Italian Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis Outbreak Study Group. Aids. 1998;12:1095–1102.
    1. Rullan JV, Herrera D, Cano R, Moreno V, Godoy P, et al. Nosocomial transmission of multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Spain. Emerg Infect Dis. 1996;2:125–129.
    1. Ritacco V, Di Lonardo M, Reniero A, Ambroggi M, Barrera L, et al. Nosocomial spread of human immunodeficiency virus-related multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in Buenos Aires. J Infect Dis. 1997;176:637–642.

Source: PubMed

Sponsoren und Mitarbeiter

Krankheiten

Drogeninterventionen

3
Abonnieren