Solid fuel use for household cooking: country and regional estimates for 1980-2010

Sophie Bonjour, Heather Adair-Rohani, Jennyfer Wolf, Nigel G Bruce, Sumi Mehta, Annette Prüss-Ustün, Maureen Lahiff, Eva A Rehfuess, Vinod Mishra, Kirk R Smith, Sophie Bonjour, Heather Adair-Rohani, Jennyfer Wolf, Nigel G Bruce, Sumi Mehta, Annette Prüss-Ustün, Maureen Lahiff, Eva A Rehfuess, Vinod Mishra, Kirk R Smith

Abstract

Background: Exposure to household air pollution from cooking with solid fuels in simple stoves is a major health risk. Modeling reliable estimates of solid fuel use is needed for monitoring trends and informing policy.

Objectives: In order to revise the disease burden attributed to household air pollution for the Global Burden of Disease 2010 project and for international reporting purposes, we estimated annual trends in the world population using solid fuels.

Methods: We developed a multilevel model based on national survey data on primary cooking fuel.

Results: The proportion of households relying mainly on solid fuels for cooking has decreased from 62% (95% CI: 58, 66%) to 41% (95% CI: 37, 44%) between 1980 and 2010. Yet because of population growth, the actual number of persons exposed has remained stable at around 2.8 billion during three decades. Solid fuel use is most prevalent in Africa and Southeast Asia where > 60% of households cook with solid fuels. In other regions, primary solid fuel use ranges from 46% in the Western Pacific, to 35% in the Eastern Mediterranean and < 20% in the Americas and Europe.

Conclusion: Multilevel modeling is a suitable technique for deriving reliable solid-fuel use estimates. Worldwide, the proportion of households cooking mainly with solid fuels is decreasing. The absolute number of persons using solid fuels, however, has remained steady globally and is increasing in some regions. Surveys require enhancement to better capture the health implications of new technologies and multiple fuel use.

Conflict of interest statement

The work leading to the results presented in the article has been developed, conducted, and implemented by the World Health Organization (WHO). This article reflects activities conducted by the Comparative Risk Assessment Expert Group for Household Air Pollution and undertaken for official reporting by the WHO. Some authors are staff members of the WHO. Those authors alone are responsible for the views expressed in this publication, which do not necessarily represent the views, decisions, or policies of the WHO. This article should not be reproduced for use in association with the promotion of commercial products, services or any legal entity. The WHO does not endorse any specific organization or products. Any reproduction of this article cannot include the use of the WHO logo.

The authors declare they have no actual or potential competing financial interests.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Trends of population using solid fuels as main cooking fuel in selected LMICs (low- and middle-income countries): model results compared to actual survey data, 1980–2010. Countries are grouped by WHO region and income category [WHO 2012e; see Supplemental Material, Table S2 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1205987)].
Figure 2
Figure 2
Regional trends for the percentage of population using solid fuels as the main cooking fuel in LMICs (low- and middle-income countries), 1980–2010. Countries are grouped by WHO region and income category (WHO 2012e; see Supplemental Material, Table S2 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1205987). 95% CIs for the years 1990, 2000, and 2010 are given in Supplemental Material, Table S3.
Figure 3
Figure 3
Global and regional trends ± 95% CIs in population relying on solid fuels as the main cooking fuel in LMICs (low- and middle-income countries), from 1980 to 2010. Countries are grouped by WHO region and income category (WHO 2012e; see Supplemental Material, Table S2 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1205987). 95% CIs for the years 1990, 2000, and 2010 are given in Supplemental Material, Table S4.
Figure 4
Figure 4
Percentage of population using solid fuels as main cooking fuel versus gross domestic product (GDP) per capita, 2010 [adjusted by 2005 US$ purchasing power parity (PPP)]. Source for GDP: World Bank (Azevedo 2011). Country names are displayed for selected countries; countries are color-coded by WHO region and income category [WHO 2012e; see Supplemental Material, Table S2 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1205987)].
Figure 5
Figure 5
Progress in using cleaner fuels as main cooking fuel between 1990 and 2010, by country. The size of each circle is proportional to the absolute number of households using solid fuels as main fuel for cooking. Country names are displayed for selected countries; countries are color-coded by WHO region and income category [WHO 2012e; see Supplemental Material, Table S2 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1205987)].

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Source: PubMed

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